More WIP

2026-07-16 05:54:01 +03:00 · 2026-07-14 08:59:08 -07:00 · 2026-07-14 08:57:47 -07:00 · 2026-07-13 07:13:00 -07:00 · 2026-07-13 06:22:24 -07:00 · 2026-07-13 11:16:16 +02:00
510 changed files with 24023 additions and 12762 deletions
--- a/.env.example
+++ b/.env.example
@@ -15,4 +15,4 @@ ENCRYPTION_KEY=
 TRUST_PROXY=false
 MAXMIND_LICENSE_KEY=
 PUID=1000
-PGID=1000
+PGID=1000
--- a/.github/workflows/backend-linter.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/backend-linter.yml
@@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ jobs:
          go-version-file: backend/go.mod

      - name: Run Golangci-lint
-        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@v9.2.1
+        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@v9.3.0
        with:
-          version: v2.11.4
-          args: --build-tags=exclude_frontend
+          version: v2.12.2
+          args: --config=.golangci.yml
          working-directory: backend
          only-new-issues: ${{ github.event_name == 'pull_request' }}
--- a/.github/workflows/build-next.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build-next.yml
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ on:
  push:
    branches:
      - main
+  workflow_dispatch:

 concurrency:
  group: build-next-image
@@ -20,117 +21,72 @@ jobs:
  build-next:
    runs-on: depot-ubuntu-latest

-    env:
-      CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME: ghcr.io/${{ github.repository_owner }}/pocket-id
-
    steps:
      - name: Checkout code
        uses: actions/checkout@v6
+        with:
+          fetch-depth: 0

      - name: Setup pnpm
        uses: pnpm/action-setup@v5
+        with:
+          run_install: false

      - name: Setup Node.js
        uses: actions/setup-node@v6
        with:
          node-version: 24
-          cache: "pnpm"
+          cache: pnpm

      - name: Setup Go
        uses: actions/setup-go@v6
        with:
-          go-version-file: "backend/go.mod"
+          go-version-file: backend/go.mod
+          cache-dependency-path: backend/go.sum

      - name: Set up Depot CLI
        uses: depot/setup-action@v1

+      - name: Setup depot buildx driver
+        run: depot configure-docker
+
      - name: Login to GitHub Container Registry
-        uses: docker/login-action@v3
+        uses: docker/login-action@v4.4.0
        with:
          registry: ghcr.io
          username: ${{ github.repository_owner }}
          password: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}

-      - name: Container Image Metadata
-        id: meta
-        uses: docker/metadata-action@v5
+      - name: Login to Docker Hub
+        uses: docker/login-action@v4.4.0
        with:
-          images: ${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}
-          tags: |
-            type=raw,value=next
-          labels: |
-            org.opencontainers.image.authors=Pocket ID
-            org.opencontainers.image.url=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.documentation=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md
-            org.opencontainers.image.source=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.version=next
-            org.opencontainers.image.licenses=BSD-2-Clause
-            org.opencontainers.image.ref.name=pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.title=Pocket ID
+          username: ${{ secrets.DOCKERHUB_USERNAME }}
+          password: ${{ secrets.DOCKERHUB_TOKEN }}

-      - name: Container Image Metadata
-        id: distroless-meta
-        uses: docker/metadata-action@v5
+      - name: Run GoReleaser
+        uses: goreleaser/goreleaser-action@v7.2.3
        with:
-          images: ${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}
-          tags: |
-            type=raw,value=next-distroless
-          labels: |
-            org.opencontainers.image.authors=Pocket ID
-            org.opencontainers.image.url=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.documentation=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md
-            org.opencontainers.image.source=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.version=next-distroless
-            org.opencontainers.image.licenses=BSD-2-Clause
-            org.opencontainers.image.ref.name=pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.title=Pocket ID
+          distribution: goreleaser-pro
+          version: "~> v2"
+          args: release --clean --skip=announce,validate --parallelism=4
+        env:
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+          BUILD_NEXT: "true"
+          SKIP_RELEASE: "true"
+          SKIP_CHANGELOG: "true"
+          GORELEASER_KEY: ${{ secrets.GORELEASER_KEY }}
+          MACOS_SIGN_P12: ${{ secrets.MACOS_SIGN_P12 }}
+          MACOS_SIGN_PASSWORD: ${{ secrets.MACOS_SIGN_PASSWORD }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_KEY: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_KEY_ID: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY_ID }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_ISSUER_ID: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_ISSUER_ID }}

-      - name: Install frontend dependencies
-        run: pnpm install --frozen-lockfile
-
-      - name: Build frontend
-        working-directory: frontend
-        run: pnpm run build
-
-      - name: Build binaries
-        run: sh scripts/development/build-binaries.sh --docker-only
-
-      - name: Build and push container image
-        id: build-push-image
-        uses: depot/build-push-action@v1
+      - name: Binary attestation
+        uses: actions/attest@v4
        with:
-          context: .
-          file: docker/Dockerfile-prebuilt
-          platforms: linux/amd64,linux/arm64
-          push: true
-          tags: ${{ steps.meta.outputs.tags }}
-          labels: ${{ steps.meta.outputs.labels }}
-          sbom: false
-          provenance: true
-
-      - name: Build and push container image (distroless)
-        uses: depot/build-push-action@v1
-        id: container-build-push-distroless
-        with:
-          context: .
-          file: docker/Dockerfile-distroless
-          platforms: linux/amd64,linux/arm64
-          push: true
-          tags: ${{ steps.distroless-meta.outputs.tags }}
-          labels: ${{ steps.distroless-meta.outputs.labels }}
-          sbom: false
-          provenance: true
+          subject-checksums: ./dist/checksums.txt

      - name: Container image attestation
-        uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@v2
+        uses: actions/attest@v4
        with:
-          subject-name: "${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}"
-          subject-digest: ${{ steps.build-push-image.outputs.digest }}
-          push-to-registry: true
-
-      - name: Container image attestation (distroless)
-        uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@v2
-        with:
-          subject-name: "${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}"
-          subject-digest: ${{ steps.container-build-push-distroless.outputs.digest }}
-          push-to-registry: true
+          subject-checksums: ./dist/digests.txt
--- a/.github/workflows/pr-quality.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/pr-quality.yml
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ jobs:
                      dependabot[bot]
                      renovate[bot]
                      github-actions[bot]
-                  exempt-users: ""
+                  exempt-users: "James18232"
                  exempt-author-association: "OWNER,MEMBER,COLLABORATOR"
                  exempt-label: "quality/exempt"
                  exempt-pr-label: ""
--- a/.github/workflows/release.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -8,151 +8,84 @@ on:
 permissions:
  contents: write
  packages: write
-  attestations: write
  id-token: write
+  attestations: write
  artifact-metadata: write

 jobs:
-  build:
+  release:
    runs-on: depot-ubuntu-24.04-16

-    env:
-      CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME: ghcr.io/${{ github.repository_owner }}/pocket-id
-
    steps:
      - name: Checkout code
        uses: actions/checkout@v6
+        with:
+          fetch-depth: 0

      - name: Setup pnpm
        uses: pnpm/action-setup@v5
-
-      - name: Set up Depot CLI
-        uses: depot/setup-action@v1
+        with:
+          run_install: false

      - name: Setup Node.js
        uses: actions/setup-node@v6
        with:
          node-version: 24
-          cache: "pnpm"
+          cache: pnpm

-      - uses: actions/setup-go@v6
+      - name: Setup Go
+        uses: actions/setup-go@v6
        with:
-          go-version-file: "backend/go.mod"
+          go-version-file: backend/go.mod
+          cache-dependency-path: backend/go.sum
+
+      - name: Set up Depot CLI
+        uses: depot/setup-action@v1
+
+      - name: Setup depot buildx driver
+        run: depot configure-docker

      - name: Login to GitHub Container Registry
-        uses: docker/login-action@v3
+        uses: docker/login-action@v4.4.0
        with:
          registry: ghcr.io
-          username: ${{github.repository_owner}}
-          password: ${{secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN}}
+          username: ${{ github.repository_owner }}
+          password: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}

-      - name: Docker metadata
-        id: meta
-        uses: docker/metadata-action@v5
+      - name: Login to Docker Hub
+        uses: docker/login-action@v4.4.0
        with:
-          images: |
-            ${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}
-          tags: |
-            type=semver,pattern={{version}},prefix=v
-            type=semver,pattern={{major}}.{{minor}},prefix=v
-            type=semver,pattern={{major}},prefix=v
-          labels: |
-            org.opencontainers.image.authors=Pocket ID
-            org.opencontainers.image.url=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.documentation=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md
-            org.opencontainers.image.source=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.version=next
-            org.opencontainers.image.licenses=BSD-2-Clause
-            org.opencontainers.image.ref.name=pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.title=Pocket ID
+          username: ${{ secrets.DOCKERHUB_USERNAME }}
+          password: ${{ secrets.DOCKERHUB_TOKEN }}

-      - name: Docker metadata (distroless)
-        id: meta-distroless
-        uses: docker/metadata-action@v5
+      - name: Run GoReleaser
+        uses: goreleaser/goreleaser-action@v7.2.3
        with:
-          images: |
-            ${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}
-          flavor: |
-            suffix=-distroless,onlatest=true
-          tags: |
-            type=semver,pattern={{version}},prefix=v
-            type=semver,pattern={{major}}.{{minor}},prefix=v
-            type=semver,pattern={{major}},prefix=v
-          labels: |
-            org.opencontainers.image.authors=Pocket ID
-            org.opencontainers.image.url=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.documentation=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md
-            org.opencontainers.image.source=https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.version=next-distroless
-            org.opencontainers.image.licenses=BSD-2-Clause
-            org.opencontainers.image.ref.name=pocket-id
-            org.opencontainers.image.title=Pocket ID
-
-      - name: Install frontend dependencies
-        run: pnpm --filter pocket-id-frontend install --frozen-lockfile
-
-      - name: Build frontend
-        run: pnpm --filter pocket-id-frontend build
-
-      - name: Build binaries
-        run: sh scripts/development/build-binaries.sh
-
-      - name: Build and push container image
-        uses: depot/build-push-action@v1
-        id: container-build-push
-        with:
-          context: .
-          file: docker/Dockerfile-prebuilt
-          platforms: linux/amd64,linux/arm64
-          push: true
-          tags: ${{ steps.meta.outputs.tags }}
-          labels: ${{ steps.meta.outputs.labels }}
-          sbom: false
-          provenance: true
-
-      - name: Build and push container image (distroless)
-        uses: depot/build-push-action@v1
-        id: container-build-push-distroless
-        with:
-          context: .
-          file: docker/Dockerfile-distroless
-          platforms: linux/amd64,linux/arm64
-          push: true
-          tags: ${{ steps.meta-distroless.outputs.tags }}
-          labels: ${{ steps.meta-distroless.outputs.labels }}
-          sbom: false
-          provenance: true
-
-      - name: Binary attestation
-        uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@v2
-        with:
-          subject-path: "backend/.bin/pocket-id-**"
-
-      - name: Container image attestation
-        uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@v2
-        with:
-          subject-name: "${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}"
-          subject-digest: ${{ steps.container-build-push.outputs.digest }}
-          push-to-registry: true
-
-      - name: Container image attestation (distroless)
-        uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@v2
-        with:
-          subject-name: "${{ env.CONTAINER_IMAGE_NAME }}"
-          subject-digest: ${{ steps.container-build-push-distroless.outputs.digest }}
-          push-to-registry: true
-      - name: Upload binaries to release
+          distribution: goreleaser-pro
+          version: "~> v2"
+          args: release --clean --skip=validate --parallelism=4
        env:
          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-        run: gh release upload ${{ github.ref_name }} backend/.bin/*
+          GORELEASER_KEY: ${{ secrets.GORELEASER_KEY }}
+          MACOS_SIGN_P12: ${{ secrets.MACOS_SIGN_P12 }}
+          MACOS_SIGN_PASSWORD: ${{ secrets.MACOS_SIGN_PASSWORD }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_KEY: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_KEY_ID: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY_ID }}
+          MACOS_NOTARY_ISSUER_ID: ${{ secrets.MACOS_NOTARY_ISSUER_ID }}
+          DISCORD_WEBHOOK_ID: ${{ secrets.DISCORD_WEBHOOK_ID }}
+          DISCORD_WEBHOOK_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.DISCORD_WEBHOOK_TOKEN }}

-  publish-release:
-    runs-on: depot-ubuntu-latest
-    needs: [build]
-    env:
-      GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout code
-        uses: actions/checkout@v6
-      - name: Mark release as published
+      - name: Binary attestation
+        uses: actions/attest@v4
+        with:
+          subject-checksums: ./dist/checksums.txt
+
+      - name: Container image attestation
+        uses: actions/attest@v4
+        with:
+          subject-checksums: ./dist/digests.txt
+
+      - name: Publish release
+        env:
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
        run: gh release edit ${{ github.ref_name }} --draft=false
--- a/.github/workflows/unit-tests.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/unit-tests.yml
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ jobs:
        working-directory: backend
        run: |
          set -e -o pipefail
-          go test -tags=exclude_frontend -v ./... | tee /tmp/TestResults.log
+          go test -tags=exclude_frontend,unit -v ./... | tee /tmp/TestResults.log
      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v7
        if: always()
        with:
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -60,3 +60,5 @@ yarn-error.log*

 #Debug
 backend/cmd/__debug_*
+# Added by goreleaser init:
+dist/
--- a/.goreleaser.yaml
+++ b/.goreleaser.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,247 @@
+# yaml-language-server: $schema=https://goreleaser.com/static/schema-pro.json
+# vim: set ts=2 sw=2 tw=0 fo=jcroql
+version: 2
+pro: true
+
+project_name: pocket-id
+
+before:
+  hooks:
+    - pnpm install --frozen-lockfile
+    - pnpm -C frontend build
+
+builds:
+  - id: pocket-id
+    main: ./cmd
+    dir: backend
+    binary: pocket-id
+    env:
+      - CGO_ENABLED=0
+      - GOMAXPROCS=2
+    goos:
+      - linux
+      - darwin
+      - windows
+      - freebsd
+      - openbsd
+    goarch:
+      - amd64
+      - arm64
+      - "386"
+      - arm
+    goarm:
+      - "7"
+    goamd64:
+      - v1
+    go386:
+      - sse2
+    ignore:
+      - goos: darwin
+        goarch: "386"
+      - goos: darwin
+        goarch: arm
+      - goos: windows
+        goarch: "386"
+      - goos: windows
+        goarch: arm
+      - goos: freebsd
+        goarch: "386"
+      - goos: freebsd
+        goarch: arm
+      - goos: openbsd
+        goarch: "386"
+      - goos: openbsd
+        goarch: arm
+    ldflags:
+      - -w -s
+      - -buildid={{ .Version }}
+      - -X github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common.Version={{ .Version }}
+    flags:
+      - -trimpath
+      - -p=2
+    mod_timestamp: "{{ .CommitTimestamp }}"
+    skip: '{{ if index .Env "BUILD_NEXT" }}true{{ end }}'
+
+  - id: pocket-id-next
+    main: ./cmd
+    dir: backend
+    binary: pocket-id
+    env:
+      - CGO_ENABLED=0
+      - GOMAXPROCS=2
+    targets:
+      - linux_amd64_v1
+      - linux_arm64_v8.0
+    ldflags:
+      - -w -s
+      - -buildid={{ .Version }}
+      - -X github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common.Version={{ .Version }}
+    flags:
+      - -trimpath
+      - -p=2
+    mod_timestamp: "{{ .CommitTimestamp }}"
+    skip: '{{ if not (index .Env "BUILD_NEXT") }}true{{ end }}'
+
+archives:
+  - id: default
+    formats:
+      - binary
+    name_template: "{{ .Binary }}_{{ .Os }}_{{ .Arch }}{{ with .Arm }}v{{ . }}{{ end }}"
+
+checksum:
+  name_template: checksums.txt
+
+docker_digest:
+  name_template: digests.txt
+
+dockers_v2:
+  - id: pocket-id
+    ids:
+      - pocket-id
+    dockerfile: docker/Dockerfile-prebuilt
+    images:
+      - "pocketid/pocket-id"
+      - "ghcr.io/{{ .Env.GITHUB_REPOSITORY_OWNER }}/pocket-id"
+    tags:
+      - "{{ .Tag }}"
+      - "v{{ .Major }}"
+      - "v{{ .Major }}.{{ .Minor }}"
+      - "latest"
+    platforms:
+      - linux/amd64
+      - linux/arm64
+    labels:
+      "org.opencontainers.image.authors": "Pocket ID"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.url": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.documentation": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.source": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.version": "{{ .Version }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.revision": "{{ .FullCommit }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.licenses": "BSD-2-Clause"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.ref.name": "pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.title": "Pocket ID"
+    disable: '{{ if index .Env "BUILD_NEXT" }}true{{ end }}'
+    sbom: true
+    extra_files:
+      - scripts/docker
+
+  - id: pocket-id-distroless
+    ids:
+      - pocket-id
+    dockerfile: docker/Dockerfile-distroless
+    images:
+      - "pocketid/pocket-id"
+      - "ghcr.io/{{ .Env.GITHUB_REPOSITORY_OWNER }}/pocket-id"
+    tags:
+      - "{{ .Tag }}-distroless"
+      - "v{{ .Major }}-distroless"
+      - "v{{ .Major }}.{{ .Minor }}-distroless"
+      - "latest-distroless"
+    platforms:
+      - linux/amd64
+      - linux/arm64
+    labels:
+      "org.opencontainers.image.authors": "Pocket ID"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.url": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.documentation": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.source": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.version": "{{ .Version }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.revision": "{{ .FullCommit }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.licenses": "BSD-2-Clause"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.ref.name": "pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.title": "Pocket ID"
+    disable: '{{ if index .Env "BUILD_NEXT" }}true{{ end }}'
+    sbom: true
+
+  - id: pocket-id-next
+    ids:
+      - pocket-id-next
+    dockerfile: docker/Dockerfile-prebuilt
+    images:
+      - "pocketid/pocket-id"
+      - "ghcr.io/{{ .Env.GITHUB_REPOSITORY_OWNER }}/pocket-id"
+    tags:
+      - "next"
+    platforms:
+      - linux/amd64
+      - linux/arm64
+    labels:
+      "org.opencontainers.image.authors": "Pocket ID"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.url": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.documentation": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.source": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.version": "{{ .Version }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.revision": "{{ .FullCommit }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.licenses": "BSD-2-Clause"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.ref.name": "pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.title": "Pocket ID"
+    disable: '{{ if not (index .Env "BUILD_NEXT") }}true{{ end }}'
+    sbom: true
+    extra_files:
+      - scripts/docker
+
+  - id: pocket-id-next-distroless
+    ids:
+      - pocket-id-next
+    dockerfile: docker/Dockerfile-distroless
+    images:
+      - "pocketid/pocket-id"
+      - "ghcr.io/{{ .Env.GITHUB_REPOSITORY_OWNER }}/pocket-id"
+    tags:
+      - "next-distroless"
+    platforms:
+      - linux/amd64
+      - linux/arm64
+    labels:
+      "org.opencontainers.image.authors": "Pocket ID"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.url": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.documentation": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/blob/main/README.md"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.source": "https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.version": "{{ .Version }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.revision": "{{ .FullCommit }}"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.licenses": "BSD-2-Clause"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.ref.name": "pocket-id"
+      "org.opencontainers.image.title": "Pocket ID"
+    disable: '{{ if not (index .Env "BUILD_NEXT") }}true{{ end }}'
+    sbom: true
+
+notarize:
+  macos:
+    - enabled: '{{ if and (isEnvSet "MACOS_SIGN_P12") (not (index .Env "BUILD_NEXT")) }}true{{ end }}'
+      ids:
+        - pocket-id
+      sign:
+        certificate: "{{ .Env.MACOS_SIGN_P12 }}"
+        password: "{{ .Env.MACOS_SIGN_PASSWORD }}"
+      notarize:
+        issuer_id: "{{ .Env.MACOS_NOTARY_ISSUER_ID }}"
+        key_id: "{{ .Env.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY_ID }}"
+        key: "{{ .Env.MACOS_NOTARY_KEY }}"
+        wait: true
+        timeout: 20m
+
+changelog:
+  disable: true
+
+announce:
+  discord:
+    enabled: true
+    message_template: "Pocket ID version {{ .Tag }} has been released! Checkout the changelog at {{ .ReleaseURL }}"
+    author: "GitHub Actions"
+    # Color code of the embed. You have to use decimal numeral system, not hexadecimal.
+    # color: "9320959"
+    icon_url: "https://github.githubassets.com/images/modules/logos_page/GitHub-Mark.png"
+
+release:
+  github:
+    owner: pocket-id
+    name: pocket-id
+  disable: '{{ if index .Env "SKIP_RELEASE" }}true{{ end }}'
+  draft: true
+  replace_existing_draft: false
+  use_existing_draft: true
+  replace_existing_artifacts: true
+  prerelease: auto
+  make_latest: true
+  mode: keep-existing
+  name_template: "{{ .Tag }}"
--- a/.version
+++ b/.version
@@ -1 +1 @@
-2.9.0
+2.11.0
--- a/.vscode/settings.json
+++ b/.vscode/settings.json
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
 {
-    "go.buildTags": "e2etest",
-    "prettier.documentSelectors": ["**/*.svelte"],
-}
+  "go.buildTags": "e2etest unit",
+  "prettier.documentSelectors": ["**/*.svelte"]
+}
--- a/AGENTS.md
+++ b/AGENTS.md
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+# AGENTS.md
+
+Pocket ID — a passkey-only OIDC provider. Go backend serves a SvelteKit SPA (embedded in
+the binary for production). This file lists what isn't obvious from reading the code.
+
+## Layout
+
+- `backend/` — Go module (gin, GORM, [ory/fosite fork](#backend-go)). Its own toolchain, not part of the repository.
+- `frontend/` — SvelteKit 5 SPA. Builds into `backend/frontend/dist` and is embedded via `go:embed`.
+- `tests/` — Playwright end-to-end tests (drives a Dockerized full stack).
+
+## Build / test / lint
+
+```sh
+# backend/   — the exclude_frontend and unit tags are mandatory locally; CI uses them too
+go test -tags=exclude_frontend,unit ./...                          # unit/integration tests
+go test -tags=exclude_frontend,unit -run TestName ./internal/...   # a single test
+golangci-lint run  # lint (config: backend/.golangci.yml - includes build tags)
+
+# frontend/  (or root)
+pnpm check        # svelte-check — the ONLY frontend type gate (no unit tests exist)
+pnpm lint         # prettier --check && eslint  (note: not enforced by CI)
+pnpm format       # prettier --write — REQUIRED before opening a PR
+```
+
+End-to-end (needs Docker; **stop any local backend on `:1411` first** — see gotchas):
+
+```sh
+cd tests/setup && docker compose up -d --build   # rebuild after ANY code change, or you test stale code
+cd ../.. && pnpm test                            # = playwright test in tests/
+```
+
+## Critical gotchas
+
+- **`exclude_frontend` and `unit` build tags.** Without them plain `go run`/`go test`/`golangci-lint` fail
+  to run. Always pass `-tags exclude_frontend,unit` for backend dev/test/lint.
+- **Never edit generated files:** `frontend/src/lib/paraglide/**` (Paraglide i18n output) and
+  `backend/frontend/dist/**`. For i18n, only edit `frontend/messages/en.json`; other locales come
+  from Crowdin.
+- **Migrations are split by DB.** Raw SQL via golang-migrate in
+  `backend/resources/migrations/{sqlite,postgres}/` — separate files _and_ separate version
+  timelines. Add a matching up/down pair to **both**. Not GORM AutoMigrate. SQLite migrations
+  are not auto-wrapped in a transaction (`NoTxWrap`); wrap multi-statement ones manually
+  (`PRAGMA foreign_keys=OFF; BEGIN; … COMMIT; PRAGMA foreign_keys=ON;`).
+
+## Backend (Go)
+
+- **Config:** global `common.EnvConfig` (caarlos0/env); any secret var supports a `*_FILE` variant.
+- **Logging:** stdlib `log/slog` only (bridged to OpenTelemetry). No zerolog/logrus in app code.
+- `go.mod` pins a **fork** of fosite (`replace github.com/ory/fosite => github.com/pocket-id/fosite`).
+
+## Frontend (SvelteKit)
+
+- **Svelte 5 runes only:** `$state`, `$derived`, `$props`, `$bindable`. No `export let`. Event
+  modifiers are gone — use `preventDefault` from `$lib/utils/event-util` (`onsubmit={preventDefault(fn)}`).
+- **Forms:** use the custom `createForm(schema, initial)` from `$lib/utils/form-util.ts` with
+  `form-input.svelte`. The vendored shadcn formsnap/superforms wrappers exist but app forms don't
+  use them — match the surrounding file. Import zod as `import { z } from 'zod/v4'`.
+
+## Coding Style Guidelines
+
+### Comments
+
+- Exactly one sentence per line
+- There is NO maximum line width: never wrap a single sentence across multiple comment lines, no matter how long that sentence is
+- A new line in a comment means a new sentence; a wrapped line does not exist
+- No trailing period on single-line comments
+- Prefer comments that explain intent, invariants, or why a branch exists
+- Avoid comments that simply restate the next line of code
+- For multi-step logic, use short section comments to separate the steps and explain why each step exists
+- Inside a function, put a one-sentence comment above each major action; the comments double as visual separators between sections and should say what the step does and why, not how
+- Favor a few well-placed section comments over a wall of code; a reader should be able to skim the comments and understand the method's flow
+
+```go
+// Wrong — one sentence wrapped across multiple lines
+// This function performs the main validation logic. It checks
+// the input against the schema and returns an error if the
+// input is invalid.
+
+// Wrong — trailing period on single-line comment
+// Validate the input.
+
+// Right — one sentence per line, each line as long as it needs to be
+// This function performs the main validation logic
+// It checks the input against the schema and returns an error if the input is invalid
+
+// Right
+// Validate the input
+
+// Right
+// Normalize the request host so callers can pass either Host or X-Forwarded-Host values
+
+// Right
+// Browsers do not accept a cookie Domain attribute set to an IP address
+// Returning an empty domain tells the caller to set a host-only cookie instead
+
+// Wrong — restates the code
+// Trim whitespace and lowercase the host
+host = strings.TrimSpace(strings.ToLower(host))
+```
+
+Section comments inside a function — one sentence per major action, describing what and why, acting as visual separators:
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -1,3 +1,109 @@
+## v2.11.0
+
+### Bug Fixes
+
+- postgres migration 20250822 remove public schema references ([#1582](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1582) by @MarcoScabbiolo)
+- allow insecure callback URLs by default until next major release ([d9ead47](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/d9ead47d19451b256336b7d0eb46606a236928f3) by @stonith404)
+- sort signup tokens by creation date explicitly ([77398a5](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/77398a558df45e1e332316afbb0f0c5e416350ea) by @stonith404)
+- login code mobile ux ([#1584](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1584) by @James18232)
+- `INTERNAL_APP_URL` not reflected in UI URLs ([316cf47](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/316cf47cebdb7337cef13a533a8105ef4364b6f5) by @stonith404)
+- ignore tab URL hashes in navigation history ([a3f27ec](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/a3f27ec2ec1ce784ca11e5fb41f92a0367715393) by @stonith404)
+- block link-local addresses in SSRF protection ([9714296](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/9714296efb3768e4f29479f48628318565a3bed7) by @stonith404)
+
+### Documentation
+
+- update README ([ff5e565](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/ff5e565eebbba0dba991cf06ad76249b7af26432) by @stonith404)
+
+### Features
+
+- add support for CIDR and IP address lists in `TRUST_PROXY` ([187cd8d](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/187cd8ddcd4d6babec73bdf7e81eab2dee1ade04) by @stonith404)
+
+### Other
+
+- manage instance ID in the KV table ([#1579](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1579) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 3 updates across multiple ecosystems ([#1578](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1578) by @dependabot[bot])
+- remove low demand issue closer ([bb03660](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/bb03660bd7d48dfd0b022936dabd2b2880c9b382) by @stonith404)
+
+**Full Changelog**: https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/compare/v2.10.0...v2.11.0
+
+## v2.10.0
+
+### Bug Fixes
+
+- login code null submission and login code length check ([#1512](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1512) by @James18232)
+- don't reject `offline_access`scope ([2ed7035](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/2ed703540d901eaf58427d0cf54fb0a5e68bc6a0) by @stonith404)
+- CSP error with `response_mode=form_post` ([16b5c16](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/16b5c16a664a2f1b20ad824d907294de9cb60c9e) by @stonith404)
+- various bugs in observability / OTel ([#1564](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1564) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- restore behavior that unknown scopes get ignored ([34e9a6d](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/34e9a6d1982a3d50bb3874aff3316c3154113725) by @stonith404)
+- re-check api permissions on access token refresh ([e8cb0c8](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/e8cb0c831ca914522babce101cf8533acbf94136) by @stonith404)
+- merge requested scopes instead of replacing them ([5e2cc6f](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/5e2cc6f40e5c7139b122d8a59ca121af1fdbdceb) by @stonith404)
+- device authorization resolve resource creating device_code ([2f55b7c](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/2f55b7cbc3d601128061dbc70014e77f5b1ec211) by @stonith404)
+- add missing burst to rate limit ([f3b6ceb](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/f3b6ceb8768616fb155455cceb7a539c13c3da9f) by @stonith404)
+- disable one time access token exchange for disabled users ([c85a4e6](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/c85a4e63dabcb2c71bbf35e03482969cb07a6df8) by @stonith404)
+- /authorize endpoint crashes when list of scopes is empty ([#1575](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1575) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- mobile layout improvements ([2910c51](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/2910c517bb7545f932c34321907299064b08bb10) by @stonith404)
+
+### Documentation
+
+- add link to API docs ([968d072](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/968d07229eeefa763fe981e5c7e4970d5640c783) by @stonith404)
+- fix wrong OpenAPI documentation ([da3677f](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/da3677f33d50c96f06ee1d8f65d9f802f67af270) by @stonith404)
+
+### Features
+
+- upgrade shadcn components ([80509c8](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/80509c83ee0ce92b416286217c11f116d5b9fe2a) by @stonith404)
+- improve error handling on authorize page ([8689ddd](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/8689ddd72b143ceac29adb63d624cc18585f580e) by @stonith404)
+- add ability to skip consent for client ([d467855](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/d4678558708542719c5d3cc48c48d3053f37800c) by @stonith404)
+- prompt admin with PKCE client support hint ([#1499](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1499) by @James18232)
+- login code input boxes ([#1545](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1545) by @James18232)
+- drop TOFU support for callback URL ([931a6c2](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/931a6c2adb39fb8cdfe18487f4206f8848b3d026) by @stonith404)
+- add OAuth APIs with scoped permissions ([#1542](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1542) by @stonith404)
+- add support for unencrypted OIDC request parameter ([25dcad7](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/25dcad757a7d7670bfd8d4d4ac209e26dc919596) by @stonith404)
+- add description field to oidc clients ([#1547](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1547) by @seanmckenzie428)
+- add tab bar navigation for crowded pages ([28a553f](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/28a553f63b85ecccaa764279af5f65ea1bf2d013) by @stonith404)
+
+### Other
+
+- close low-demand feature requests ([35987b9](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/35987b9c8d44efb08928d031ab9f1e84eda9882f) by @stonith404)
+- Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 2 updates across multiple ecosystems ([#1528](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1528) by @dependabot[bot])
+- fix locators after shadcn upgrade ([dbbe2a4](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/dbbe2a403aa6afc39e14cf559bd074c6640e3b0c) by @stonith404)
+- use fosite for OAuth 2.0 logic ([#1520](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1520) by @stonith404)
+- wrap last two migrations into transaction ([cf9a319](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/cf9a31986f521451bc9e1c2754a09ee2d141cd57) by @stonith404)
+- remove dead code ([519cda0](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/519cda0eef1083274deed9bf6c501b815986241a) by @stonith404)
+- update vulnerable dependencies ([e538ea0](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/e538ea0bf1ba4d5f70f977c7021bfa4f4543070e) by @stonith404)
+- fix flaky test ([7eaaea7](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/7eaaea717b418c167b733723eeb000073c6915fe) by @stonith404)
+- add AGENTS.md ([d0243fe](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/d0243fe396fb4ae2ec8d66ab95c80c8a283a631b) by @stonith404)
+- use goreleaser for binaries and static image builds ([#1478](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1478) by @kmendell)
+- add support for Docker Hub ([99ab38d](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/99ab38dc799d07d4d91863199b1350fb7d06e03e) by @stonith404)
+- remove static next image tag ([49305ed](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/49305ed1f98d838167703d3dc2f6e3e5786fb9fc) by @stonith404)
+- don't build unnecessary binaries for `next` image ([4b957a0](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/4b957a0106899666b55420b61d2bb12d08d82022) by @stonith404)
+- change Depot project ([cdc2374](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/cdc23744ae1cb731184828afe326fc2a1712c02f) by @stonith404)
+- don't tag `next` image with current version ([cf54786](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/cf54786cc3bfe59bd01e8d5cbb4a3ccabb7d6466) by @stonith404)
+- add exempt user to PR quality checks ([254ae88](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/254ae88cda67ecc1095b0b738630388c93d90c44) by @stonith404)
+- migrate API key functionality to single `apikey` module ([9fce987](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/9fce98710679e522233c3b7af8d3b6cd2ce5594c) by @stonith404)
+- migrate Webauthn functionality to single `webauthn` module ([58fcf7c](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/58fcf7cbe665be8d7670170097735fe8efe31c6f) by @stonith404)
+- migrate signup functionality to single `usersignup` module ([ecad31c](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/ecad31cae2dbbc51d15a7007601829c57accff75) by @stonith404)
+- make API key renewal date picker navigation date-independent ([#1560](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1560) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- integrate Francis actor framework for background jobs, cron scheduling, and rate limiting ([#1556](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1556) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 3 updates across multiple ecosystems ([#1563](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1563) by @dependabot[bot])
+- use go-kit for sending emails ([#1565](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1565) by @ItalyPaleAle)
+- update AAGUIDs ([#1567](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/pull/1567) by @github-actions[bot])
+- move Pocket ID specific logic from Fosite into Pocket ID repo ([9a94aa0](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/9a94aa0694abda5bdd7c9380cbadc1f080a8027e) by @stonith404)
+- update Fosite version ([337fc6f](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/337fc6fd1ec53aa65275f5ad964869462664a194) by @stonith404)
+- pass transaction to `resolveResource` ([7667377](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/7667377c98c01f45dc5e959c999c60143efca1ef) by @stonith404)
+- remove redundant dtos ([fa2d08c](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/fa2d08cb6d60bc3c9d8865c36c07ef8868e8ed9e) by @stonith404)
+- rename migrations ([c72da58](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/c72da58eaf45eafff3232bcc050fd87e84ae050f) by @stonith404)
+- remove duplicate fosite config properties ([190914f](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/190914fd72481c2da7372215f369a5b96feed3f0) by @stonith404)
+- fix migration version in `database.json` ([a5f2192](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/a5f2192d67045cca63a4e0038e118986754d4184) by @stonith404)
+- fix wrong migration name ([ce7d3a7](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/ce7d3a7e1d6ab08696a149fa8805fcb99337afa9) by @stonith404)
+- run formatter ([59a6868](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/59a6868ecdb017354d4dfd8d70c4ba0710f02f08) by @stonith404)
+- upgrade go version ([f62d476](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/f62d476c56d39f7f20c443eb430462e9141d31fa) by @stonith404)
+
+### Performance Improvements
+
+- include permissions in api list response ([8035a4c](https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/commit/8035a4c8d589109e767a031dae3c473ea3e77d75) by @stonith404)
+
+**Full Changelog**: https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/compare/v2.9.0...v2.10.0
+
 ## v2.9.0

 ### Bug Fixes
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -125,4 +125,4 @@ If you make any changes to the application, you have to rebuild the test environ

 In the backend we are using unit tests with the built-in Go testing framework. The tests are located in the same folder as the code they are testing and have the `_test.go` suffix.

-To run the tests, simply run `go test ./...` from the root of the `backend` folder.
+To run the tests, simply run `go test -tags=exclude_frontend,unit ./...` from the root of the `backend` folder.
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,15 +1,19 @@
 # <div align="center"><img  src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/4ceb2708-9f29-4694-b797-be833efce17d" width="100"/> </br>Pocket ID</div>

-Pocket ID is a simple OIDC provider that allows users to authenticate with their passkeys to your services.
+Pocket ID is an easy-to-use OpenID Connect Certified™ and OAuth 2.0 provider that lets users sign in to your applications with passkeys.

 → Try out the [Demo](https://demo.pocket-id.org)

 <img src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/1e99ba44-76da-4b47-9b8a-dbe9b7f84512" width="1200"/>

-The goal of Pocket ID is to be a simple and easy-to-use. There are other self-hosted OIDC providers like [Keycloak](https://www.keycloak.org/) or [ORY Hydra](https://www.ory.sh/hydra/) but they are often too complex for simple use cases.
+The goal of Pocket ID is to be a simple and easy-to-use. There are other self-hosted OIDC and OAuth 2.0 providers like [Keycloak](https://www.keycloak.org/) or [ORY Hydra](https://www.ory.sh/hydra/) but they are often too complex for simple use cases.

 Additionally, what makes Pocket ID special is that it only supports [passkey](https://www.passkeys.io/) authentication, which means you don’t need a password. Some people might not like this idea at first, but I believe passkeys are the future, and once you try them, you’ll love them. For example, you can now use a physical Yubikey to sign in to all your self-hosted services easily and securely.

+<a href="https://openid.net/certification/certified-openid-providers-profiles">
+    <img src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/697a8b8f-61bc-412f-8222-5410da7292c7" height="80" alt="OpenID Connect Certified">
+</a>
+
 ## Setup

 Pocket ID can be set up in multiple ways. The easiest and recommended way is to use Docker.
--- a/backend/.golangci.yml
+++ b/backend/.golangci.yml
@@ -2,6 +2,9 @@ version: "2"
 run:
  tests: true
  timeout: 5m
+  build-tags:
+    - unit
+    - exclude_frontend
 linters:
  default: none
  enable:
--- a/backend/Makefile
+++ b/backend/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+.PHONY: test
+test:
+	go test -tags exclude_frontend,unit ./...
+
+.PHONY: test-race
+test-race:
+	CGO_ENABLED=1 go test -race -tags exclude_frontend,unit ./...
+
+.PHONY: lint
+lint:
+	golangci-lint run -c .golangci.yml
--- a/backend/frontend/frontend_excluded.go
+++ b/backend/frontend/frontend_excluded.go
@@ -4,9 +4,8 @@ package frontend

 import (
 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 )

-func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine, oidcService *service.OidcService) error {
+func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine) error {
 	return ErrFrontendNotIncluded
 }
--- a/backend/frontend/frontend_included.go
+++ b/backend/frontend/frontend_included.go
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ import (

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
-	"golang.org/x/time/rate"
 )

 //go:embed all:dist/*
@@ -55,7 +53,7 @@ func init() {
 	}
 }

-func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine, oidcService *service.OidcService) error {
+func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine) error {
 	distFS, err := fs.Sub(frontendFS, "dist")
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create sub FS: %w", err)
@@ -87,19 +85,6 @@ func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine, oidcService *service.OidcService) erro
 		if isSPARequest(path, distFS) {
 			nonce := middleware.GetCSPNonce(c)

-			// For an authorization request that responds via response_mode=form_post, the
-			// consent page auto-submits a form to the client's callback, so that callback
-			// must be allowed in the CSP form-action directive
-			isAuthPostRequest, redirectURI := isOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(c, oidcService)
-			if isAuthPostRequest {
-				clientID := c.Query("client_id")
-				// In that case, we need to validate and allow form submissions to the redirect_uri
-				validatedRedirectURI, err := oidcService.ResolveAllowedCallbackURL(c.Request.Context(), clientID, redirectURI)
-				if err == nil {
-					c.Header("Content-Security-Policy", middleware.BuildCSP(nonce, validatedRedirectURI))
-				}
-			}
-
 			// Do not cache the HTML shell, as it embeds a per-request nonce
 			c.Header("Content-Type", "text/html; charset=utf-8")
 			c.Header("Cache-Control", "no-store")
@@ -115,55 +100,11 @@ func RegisterFrontend(router *gin.Engine, oidcService *service.OidcService) erro
 		fileServer.ServeHTTP(c.Writer, c.Request)
 	}

-	rateLimitMiddleware := middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware().Add(rate.Every(300*time.Millisecond), 50)
-	router.NoRoute(rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(rateLimitMiddleware, oidcService, distFS), handler)
+	router.NoRoute(handler)

 	return nil
 }

-func rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(rateLimitMiddleware gin.HandlerFunc, oidcService *service.OidcService, distFS fs.FS) gin.HandlerFunc {
-	return func(c *gin.Context) {
-		path := strings.TrimPrefix(c.Request.URL.Path, "/")
-
-		if isSPARequest(path, distFS) {
-			isAuthPostRequest, _ := isOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(c, oidcService)
-			if isAuthPostRequest {
-				rateLimitMiddleware(c)
-				return
-			}
-		}
-
-		c.Next()
-	}
-}
-
-// isOAuth2AuthorizationRequest checks if this is an OAuth2 authorization request with response_mode=form_post
-// In that case, we need to validate and allow form submissions to the redirect_uri
-func isOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(c *gin.Context, oidcService *service.OidcService) (bool, string) {
-	responseMode := c.Query("response_mode")
-	redirectURI := c.Query("redirect_uri")
-	clientID := c.Query("client_id")
-	requestUri := c.Query("request_uri")
-
-	if c.Request.URL.Path != "/authorize" {
-		return false, ""
-	}
-
-	if requestUri != "" && clientID != "" {
-		par, err := oidcService.GetPushedAuthorizationRequest(c.Request.Context(), clientID, requestUri)
-		if err != nil {
-			return false, ""
-		}
-
-		responseMode = par.Parameters.ResponseMode
-		redirectURI = par.Parameters.RedirectURI
-
-	}
-
-	ok := responseMode == "form_post" && redirectURI != "" && clientID != ""
-	return ok, redirectURI
-}
-
 func isSPARequest(path string, distFS fs.FS) bool {
 	if path == "" {
 		return true
--- a/backend/frontend/frontend_included_test.go
+++ b/backend/frontend/frontend_included_test.go
@@ -3,12 +3,9 @@
 package frontend

 import (
-	"net/http"
-	"net/http/httptest"
 	"testing"
 	"testing/fstest"

-	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 )

@@ -29,109 +26,3 @@ func TestIsSPARequest(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.True(t, isSPARequest("authorize", distFS))
 	})
 }
-
-func TestRateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(t *testing.T) {
-	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
-
-	distFS := fstest.MapFS{
-		"assets/app.js": &fstest.MapFile{Data: []byte("console.log('test')")},
-	}
-
-	t.Run("rate limits spa form_post request", func(t *testing.T) {
-		rateLimited := false
-		nextCalled := false
-		middleware := rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(func(c *gin.Context) {
-			rateLimited = true
-			c.Abort()
-		}, nil, distFS)
-
-		router := gin.New()
-		router.NoRoute(
-			middleware,
-			func(c *gin.Context) {
-				nextCalled = true
-			},
-		)
-
-		recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-		req := httptest.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, "/authorize?response_mode=form_post&client_id=test&redirect_uri=https://example.com/callback", nil)
-		router.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
-
-		assert.True(t, rateLimited)
-		assert.False(t, nextCalled)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("does not rate limit page request with no form_post params", func(t *testing.T) {
-		rateLimited := false
-		nextCalled := false
-		middleware := rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(func(c *gin.Context) {
-			rateLimited = true
-			c.Abort()
-		}, nil, distFS)
-
-		router := gin.New()
-		router.NoRoute(
-			middleware,
-			func(c *gin.Context) {
-				nextCalled = true
-			},
-		)
-
-		recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-		req := httptest.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, "/authorize", nil)
-		router.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
-
-		assert.False(t, rateLimited)
-		assert.True(t, nextCalled)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("does not rate limit static asset request with form_post params", func(t *testing.T) {
-		rateLimited := false
-		nextCalled := false
-		middleware := rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(func(c *gin.Context) {
-			rateLimited = true
-			c.Abort()
-		}, nil, distFS)
-
-		router := gin.New()
-		router.NoRoute(
-			middleware,
-			func(c *gin.Context) {
-				nextCalled = true
-			},
-		)
-
-		recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-		req := httptest.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, "/assets/app.js?response_mode=form_post&client_id=test&redirect_uri=https://example.com/callback", nil)
-		router.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
-
-		assert.False(t, rateLimited)
-		assert.True(t, nextCalled)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("does not rate limit non-authorize spa path with form_post params", func(t *testing.T) {
-		rateLimited := false
-		nextCalled := false
-		// oidcService is nil: a non-/authorize path is rejected by the path guard
-		// before the request_uri branch that would dereference it.
-		middleware := rateLimitOnlyForOAuth2AuthorizationPostRequest(func(c *gin.Context) {
-			rateLimited = true
-			c.Abort()
-		}, nil, distFS)
-
-		router := gin.New()
-		router.NoRoute(
-			middleware,
-			func(c *gin.Context) {
-				nextCalled = true
-			},
-		)
-
-		recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-		req := httptest.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, "/settings?response_mode=form_post&client_id=test&redirect_uri=https://example.com/callback", nil)
-		router.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
-
-		assert.False(t, rateLimited)
-		assert.True(t, nextCalled)
-	})
-}
--- a/backend/go.mod
+++ b/backend/go.mod
@@ -1,42 +1,44 @@
 module github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend

-go 1.26
+go 1.26.5

 require (
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.42.0
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.32.24
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.19.23
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.103.3
-	github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.27.1
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.42.1
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.32.27
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.19.26
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.104.2
+	github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.27.3
 	github.com/caarlos0/env/v11 v11.4.1
 	github.com/cenkalti/backoff/v5 v5.0.3
 	github.com/coreos/go-systemd v0.0.0-20191104093116-d3cd4ed1dbcf
 	github.com/disintegration/imageorient v0.0.0-20180920195336-8147d86e83ec
 	github.com/disintegration/imaging v1.6.2
 	github.com/dunglas/go-urlpattern v0.0.0-20241020164140-716dfa1c80b1
-	github.com/emersion/go-sasl v0.0.0-20241020182733-b788ff22d5a6
-	github.com/emersion/go-smtp v0.24.0
 	github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify v1.10.1
 	github.com/gin-contrib/slog v1.2.1
 	github.com/gin-gonic/gin v1.12.0
-	github.com/glebarez/go-sqlite v1.22.0
-	github.com/glebarez/sqlite v1.11.0
 	github.com/go-co-op/gocron/v2 v2.21.2
+	github.com/go-jose/go-jose/v4 v4.1.4
 	github.com/go-ldap/ldap/v3 v3.4.13
 	github.com/go-playground/validator/v10 v10.30.3
 	github.com/go-webauthn/webauthn v0.17.4
 	github.com/golang-migrate/migrate/v4 v4.19.1
 	github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0
-	github.com/hashicorp/go-uuid v1.0.3
+	github.com/italypaleale/francis v0.1.0-beta.10
+	github.com/italypaleale/go-kit v0.0.0-20260708054611-e276b65dd3be
+	github.com/italypaleale/go-sql-utils v0.2.4
+	github.com/jackc/pgx/v5 v5.10.0
 	github.com/jinzhu/copier v0.4.0
 	github.com/joho/godotenv v1.5.1
 	github.com/lestrrat-go/httprc/v3 v3.0.6
 	github.com/lestrrat-go/jwx/v3 v3.1.1
+	github.com/libtnb/sqlite v1.1.2
 	github.com/lmittmann/tint v1.1.3
 	github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.22
 	github.com/mileusna/useragent v1.3.5
 	github.com/orandin/slog-gorm v1.4.0
-	github.com/oschwald/maxminddb-golang/v2 v2.4.0
+	github.com/ory/fosite v0.49.1-0.20250703093431-a5f0b09bf31c
+	github.com/oschwald/maxminddb-golang/v2 v2.4.1
 	github.com/spf13/cobra v1.10.2
 	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.11.1
 	github.com/zitadel/exifremove v0.1.0
@@ -46,35 +48,41 @@ require (
 	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.69.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.44.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/log v0.20.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.44.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk v1.44.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/log v0.20.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/metric v1.44.0
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.44.0
-	golang.org/x/crypto v0.52.0
-	golang.org/x/image v0.42.0
-	golang.org/x/sync v0.21.0
-	golang.org/x/text v0.38.0
-	golang.org/x/time v0.15.0
+	golang.org/x/crypto v0.53.0
+	golang.org/x/image v0.43.0
+	golang.org/x/sync v0.22.0
+	golang.org/x/text v0.39.0
 	gorm.io/driver/postgres v1.6.0
-	gorm.io/gorm v1.31.1
+	gorm.io/gorm v1.31.2
+	gorm.io/plugin/opentelemetry v0.1.16
+	modernc.org/sqlite v1.53.0
 )

 require (
-	github.com/Azure/go-ntlmssp v0.1.0 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.7.13 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.18.29 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.4.29 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.7.29 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.4.30 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/accept-encoding v1.13.12 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.9.22 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.13.29 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.19.29 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/signin v1.1.5 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.31.3 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.36.6 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.43.3 // indirect
+	filippo.io/edwards25519 v1.2.0 // indirect
+	github.com/Azure/go-ntlmssp v0.1.1 // indirect
+	github.com/ClickHouse/ch-go v0.61.5 // indirect
+	github.com/ClickHouse/clickhouse-go/v2 v2.30.0 // indirect
+	github.com/alphadose/haxmap v1.4.1 // indirect
+	github.com/andybalholm/brotli v1.1.1 // indirect
+	github.com/asaskevich/govalidator v0.0.0-20230301143203-a9d515a09cc2 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.7.14 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.18.30 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.4.30 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.7.30 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.4.31 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/accept-encoding v1.13.13 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.9.23 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.13.30 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.19.31 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/signin v1.4.0 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.32.0 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.37.0 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.44.0 // indirect
 	github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1 // indirect
 	github.com/bits-and-blooms/bitset v1.24.4 // indirect
 	github.com/bytedance/gopkg v0.1.4 // indirect
@@ -82,8 +90,10 @@ require (
 	github.com/bytedance/sonic/loader v0.5.1 // indirect
 	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cloudwego/base64x v0.1.7 // indirect
+	github.com/cristalhq/jwt/v5 v5.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.2-0.20180830191138-d8f796af33cc // indirect
 	github.com/decred/dcrd/dcrec/secp256k1/v4 v4.4.1 // indirect
+	github.com/dgraph-io/ristretto/v2 v2.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/disintegration/gift v1.2.1 // indirect
 	github.com/dsoprea/go-exif v0.0.0-20230826092837-6579e82b732d // indirect
 	github.com/dsoprea/go-exif/v2 v2.0.0-20230826092837-6579e82b732d // indirect
@@ -93,38 +103,50 @@ require (
 	github.com/dsoprea/go-photoshop-info-format v0.0.0-20200610045659-121dd752914d // indirect
 	github.com/dsoprea/go-png-image-structure v0.0.0-20210512210324-29b889a6093d // indirect
 	github.com/dsoprea/go-utility v0.0.0-20221003172846-a3e1774ef349 // indirect
+	github.com/dunglas/httpsfv v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.1 // indirect
-	github.com/felixge/httpsnoop v1.0.4 // indirect
+	github.com/felixge/httpsnoop v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/fxamacker/cbor/v2 v2.9.2 // indirect
 	github.com/gabriel-vasile/mimetype v1.4.13 // indirect
 	github.com/gin-contrib/sse v1.1.1 // indirect
 	github.com/go-asn1-ber/asn1-ber v1.5.8-0.20250403174932-29230038a667 // indirect
 	github.com/go-errors/errors v1.5.1 // indirect
+	github.com/go-faster/city v1.0.1 // indirect
+	github.com/go-faster/errors v0.7.1 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/logr v1.4.3 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/stdr v1.2.2 // indirect
 	github.com/go-playground/locales v0.14.1 // indirect
 	github.com/go-playground/universal-translator v0.18.1 // indirect
+	github.com/go-sql-driver/mysql v1.9.3 // indirect
 	github.com/go-viper/mapstructure/v2 v2.5.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-webauthn/x v0.2.6 // indirect
 	github.com/go-xmlfmt/xmlfmt v1.1.3 // indirect
 	github.com/goccy/go-json v0.10.6 // indirect
 	github.com/goccy/go-yaml v1.19.2 // indirect
+	github.com/gogo/googleapis v1.4.1 // indirect
+	github.com/gogo/protobuf v1.3.2 // indirect
 	github.com/golang-jwt/jwt/v5 v5.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/geo v0.0.0-20250319145452-ed1c8b99c3d7 // indirect
 	github.com/google/go-github/v39 v39.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/google/go-querystring v1.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/google/go-tpm v0.9.8 // indirect
+	github.com/gorilla/websocket v1.5.3 // indirect
 	github.com/grpc-ecosystem/grpc-gateway/v2 v2.29.0 // indirect
 	github.com/h2non/filetype v1.1.3 // indirect
+	github.com/hashicorp/go-cleanhttp v0.5.2 // indirect
+	github.com/hashicorp/go-retryablehttp v0.7.8 // indirect
+	github.com/hashicorp/go-version v1.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 // indirect
+	github.com/jackc/pgerrcode v0.0.0-20250907135507-afb5586c32a6 // indirect
 	github.com/jackc/pgpassfile v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jackc/pgservicefile v0.0.0-20240606120523-5a60cdf6a761 // indirect
-	github.com/jackc/pgx/v5 v5.9.1 // indirect
 	github.com/jackc/puddle/v2 v2.2.2 // indirect
+	github.com/jaegertracing/jaeger-idl v0.9.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jinzhu/inflection v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jinzhu/now v1.1.5 // indirect
 	github.com/jonboulle/clockwork v0.5.0 // indirect
 	github.com/json-iterator/go v1.1.12 // indirect
+	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.18.5 // indirect
 	github.com/klauspost/cpuid/v2 v2.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/leodido/go-urn v1.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/lestrrat-go/blackmagic v1.0.4 // indirect
@@ -134,33 +156,59 @@ require (
 	github.com/lestrrat-go/option/v2 v2.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/lib/pq v1.12.3 // indirect
 	github.com/mattn/go-sqlite3 v1.14.42 // indirect
+	github.com/mattn/goveralls v0.0.12 // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/concurrent v0.0.0-20180306012644-bacd9c7ef1dd // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/reflect2 v1.0.2 // indirect
+	github.com/mohae/deepcopy v0.0.0-20170929034955-c48cc78d4826 // indirect
 	github.com/munnerz/goautoneg v0.0.0-20191010083416-a7dc8b61c822 // indirect
 	github.com/ncruces/go-strftime v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/nlnwa/whatwg-url v0.6.2 // indirect
+	github.com/openzipkin/zipkin-go v0.4.3 // indirect
+	github.com/ory/go-acc v0.2.9-0.20230103102148-6b1c9a70dbbe // indirect
+	github.com/ory/go-convenience v0.1.0 // indirect
+	github.com/ory/pop/v6 v6.4.1 // indirect
+	github.com/ory/x v0.0.729 // indirect
+	github.com/paulmach/orb v0.11.1 // indirect
 	github.com/pelletier/go-toml/v2 v2.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/philhofer/fwd v1.2.0 // indirect
+	github.com/pierrec/lz4/v4 v4.1.21 // indirect
+	github.com/pkg/errors v0.9.1 // indirect
 	github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.1-0.20181226105442-5d4384ee4fb2 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.23.2 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.6.2 // indirect
-	github.com/prometheus/common v0.67.5 // indirect
+	github.com/prometheus/common v0.69.0 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/otlptranslator v1.0.0 // indirect
-	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.20.1 // indirect
+	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.21.1 // indirect
 	github.com/quic-go/qpack v0.6.0 // indirect
-	github.com/quic-go/quic-go v0.59.1 // indirect
+	github.com/quic-go/quic-go v0.60.0 // indirect
+	github.com/quic-go/webtransport-go v0.11.1 // indirect
 	github.com/remyoudompheng/bigfft v0.0.0-20230129092748-24d4a6f8daec // indirect
 	github.com/robfig/cron/v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
+	github.com/sagikazarmark/locafero v0.12.0 // indirect
+	github.com/seatgeek/logrus-gelf-formatter v0.0.0-20210414080842-5b05eb8ff761 // indirect
 	github.com/segmentio/asm v1.2.1 // indirect
+	github.com/shopspring/decimal v1.4.0 // indirect
+	github.com/sirupsen/logrus v1.9.4 // indirect
+	github.com/spf13/afero v1.15.0 // indirect
+	github.com/spf13/cast v1.10.0 // indirect
 	github.com/spf13/pflag v1.0.10 // indirect
+	github.com/spf13/viper v1.21.0 // indirect
+	github.com/subosito/gotenv v1.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/tinylib/msgp v1.6.4 // indirect
 	github.com/twitchyliquid64/golang-asm v0.15.1 // indirect
 	github.com/ugorji/go/codec v1.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/valyala/fastjson v1.6.10 // indirect
+	github.com/vmihailenco/msgpack/v5 v5.4.1 // indirect
+	github.com/vmihailenco/tagparser/v2 v2.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/x448/float16 v0.8.4 // indirect
 	go.mongodb.org/mongo-driver/v2 v2.6.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/auto/sdk v1.2.1 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/bridges/prometheus v0.69.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/httptrace/otelhttptrace v0.69.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/b3 v1.44.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/jaeger v1.44.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/samplers/jaegerremote v0.37.1 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/jaeger v1.17.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlplog/otlploggrpc v0.20.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlplog/otlploghttp v0.20.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlpmetric/otlpmetricgrpc v1.44.0 // indirect
@@ -172,21 +220,31 @@ require (
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/stdout/stdoutlog v0.20.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/stdout/stdoutmetric v1.44.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/stdout/stdouttrace v1.44.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/zipkin v1.44.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.44.0 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.10.0 // indirect
-	go.yaml.in/yaml/v2 v2.4.4 // indirect
+	go.uber.org/mock v0.6.0 // indirect
+	go.yaml.in/yaml/v3 v3.0.4 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/arch v0.27.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20260410095643-746e56fc9e2f // indirect
-	golang.org/x/net v0.55.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20260611194520-c48552f49976 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/mod v0.37.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/net v0.56.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.36.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/sys v0.45.0 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20260526163538-3dc84a4a5aaa // indirect
-	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20260526163538-3dc84a4a5aaa // indirect
-	google.golang.org/grpc v1.81.1 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/sys v0.46.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/time v0.15.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/tools v0.47.0 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20260630182238-925bb5da69e7 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20260630182238-925bb5da69e7 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/grpc v1.82.0 // indirect
 	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.36.11 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
-	modernc.org/libc v1.71.0 // indirect
+	gorm.io/driver/clickhouse v0.7.0 // indirect
+	gorm.io/driver/mysql v1.5.7 // indirect
+	k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20260617174310-a95e086a2553 // indirect
+	modernc.org/libc v1.73.5 // indirect
 	modernc.org/mathutil v1.7.1 // indirect
 	modernc.org/memory v1.11.0 // indirect
-	modernc.org/sqlite v1.48.2 // indirect
 )
+
+replace github.com/ory/fosite => github.com/pocket-id/fosite v0.0.0-20260708083902-56a3c0f378d6
--- a/backend/go.sum
+++ b/backend/go.sum
@@ -1,47 +1,59 @@
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-github.com/Azure/go-ntlmssp v0.1.0 h1:DjFo6YtWzNqNvQdrwEyr/e4nhU3vRiwenz5QX7sFz+A=
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+filippo.io/edwards25519 v1.2.0 h1:crnVqOiS4jqYleHd9vaKZ+HKtHfllngJIiOpNpoJsjo=
+filippo.io/edwards25519 v1.2.0/go.mod h1:xzAOLCNug/yB62zG1bQ8uziwrIqIuxhctzJT18Q77mc=
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+github.com/Azure/go-ntlmssp v0.1.1/go.mod h1:NYqdhxd/8aAct/s4qSYZEerdPuH1liG2/X9DiVTbhpk=
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 github.com/alexbrainman/sspi v0.0.0-20250919150558-7d374ff0d59e/go.mod h1:cEWa1LVoE5KvSD9ONXsZrj0z6KqySlCCNKHlLzbqAt4=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.42.0 h1:XvXMJTkFQtpBKIWZnmr9ZEOc2InWM2yldjXEJ/bymhA=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.42.0/go.mod h1:27+ACypSLljLAEKsCYOmrjKh83vuTRkuAe9Uv/3A4bg=
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+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.44.0 h1:bLZ0PolJ8J+HkJHztcXORUpHXBye2U8298lCEMi6ZCU=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.44.0/go.mod h1:9gdl4RrflIdpDb2TlXshWgR1F9TeCkvqDx77Vpr4Z/Q=
+github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.27.3 h1:F3Zb497UhhskkfpJmfkXswyo+t0sh9OTBnIHjogWbVY=
+github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.27.3/go.mod h1:YE2RhdIuDbA5E5bTdciG9KrW3+TiEONeUWCqxX9i1Fc=
 github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1 h1:VlbKKnNfV8bJzeqoa4cOKqO6bYr3WgKZxO8Z16+hsOM=
 github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1/go.mod h1:G2ZrVWU2WbWT9wwq4/hrbKbnv/1ERSJQ0ibhJ6rlkpw=
 github.com/bits-and-blooms/bitset v1.20.0/go.mod h1:7hO7Gc7Pp1vODcmWvKMRA9BNmbv6a/7QIWpPxHddWR8=
@@ -68,12 +80,18 @@ github.com/containerd/errdefs/pkg v0.3.0/go.mod h1:NJw6s9HwNuRhnjJhM7pylWwMyAkmC
 github.com/coreos/go-systemd v0.0.0-20191104093116-d3cd4ed1dbcf h1:iW4rZ826su+pqaw19uhpSCzhj44qo35pNgKFGqzDKkU=
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@@ -119,14 +137,16 @@ github.com/dsoprea/go-utility v0.0.0-20221003172846-a3e1774ef349/go.mod h1:KVK+/
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@@ -139,10 +159,6 @@ github.com/gin-contrib/sse v1.1.1 h1:uGYpNwTacv5R68bSGMapo62iLTRa9l5zxGCps4hK6ko
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@@ -152,6 +168,12 @@ github.com/go-errors/errors v1.0.2/go.mod h1:psDX2osz5VnTOnFWbDeWwS7yejl+uV3FEWE
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@@ -167,6 +189,9 @@ github.com/go-playground/universal-translator v0.18.1 h1:Bcnm0ZwsGyWbCzImXv+pAJn
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@@ -180,6 +205,8 @@ github.com/goccy/go-json v0.10.6 h1:p8HrPJzOakx/mn/bQtjgNjdTcN+/S6FcG2CTtQOrHVU=
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@@ -192,9 +219,12 @@ github.com/golang/geo v0.0.0-20250319145452-ed1c8b99c3d7 h1:kG/6mhO8OwbQrA/0XEPw
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@@ -213,24 +243,44 @@ github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20250317173921-a4b03ec1a45e h1:ijClszYn+mADRFY17k
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@@ -347,18 +453,35 @@ github.com/robfig/cron/v3 v3.0.1/go.mod h1:eQICP3HwyT7UooqI/z+Ov+PtYAWygg1TEWWzG
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@@ -366,19 +489,45 @@ github.com/stretchr/testify v1.8.4/go.mod h1:sz/lmYIOXD/1dqDmKjjqLyZ2RngseejIcXl
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@@ -391,12 +540,20 @@ go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/exporters/autoexport v0.69.0 h1:R3jsCoTIzv0BiYNhW0ax
 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/exporters/autoexport v0.69.0/go.mod h1:m07gqyr2QhQxKOKb5vqKCCBtLH3uqlNYR7PU/FISXVU=
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 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/github.com/gin-gonic/gin/otelgin v0.69.0/go.mod h1:W6FFYCZQuntC5hxVesXpu7Ppd9sT0a84njildAijc+k=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/httptrace/otelhttptrace v0.69.0 h1:MCcYL7J6Vt/X0kjqbMZkekCmwsurbQRbL69vkiye2lk=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/httptrace/otelhttptrace v0.69.0/go.mod h1:3jnStNwSufK+f5ktjL4EPcwtig4rtd81NS70lqHuXl8=
 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.69.0 h1:8tvICD4vSTOOsNrsI4Ljf6C+6UKvpTEH5XY3JMoyPoo=
 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.69.0/go.mod h1:z9+yiacE0IHRqM4qFfkbt/JYlmYXgss8GY/jXoNuPJI=
 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/b3 v1.44.0 h1:1IFH4oFKK8KupzIelCl3u+bkxpGRps1oWRjQI2+TTWs=
 go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/b3 v1.44.0/go.mod h1:JqWFXsc7VDaqIyubFhEd2cPHqsrzqP0Lvn783SUwyro=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/jaeger v1.44.0 h1:OyzvsAMc/zHt0DRPcfstn0wgfq8ApDkeY0ABMcueweM=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/propagators/jaeger v1.44.0/go.mod h1:44kghcGX+BNxy9UTiWtd6VDt8Nd4EypGBkH2+v2Dqrc=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/samplers/jaegerremote v0.37.1 h1:pV2nZ1iE87X9ym+crkD9k15zTLbN08+IC4C7sk9sQYM=
+go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/samplers/jaegerremote v0.37.1/go.mod h1:nvgrM8LaG2+5G7WxbtjEPiSkg87+d0/ltZZK70p7FVo=
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+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/jaeger v1.17.0 h1:D7UpUy2Xc2wsi1Ras6V40q806WM07rqoCWzXu7Sqy+4=
+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/jaeger v1.17.0/go.mod h1:nPCqOnEH9rNLKqH/+rrUjiMzHJdV1BlpKcTwRTyKkKI=
 go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlplog/otlploggrpc v0.20.0 h1:rydZ9sxbcFdm/oWrVyfLTjHIygMgv0bEeMd+3B/BvoM=
 go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlplog/otlploggrpc v0.20.0/go.mod h1:earQ25dooT0Hhspq59DZ8YCC50jWfOlFEeWoxy/P444=
 go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlplog/otlploghttp v0.20.0 h1:owlhcJ3QO3X0YTDTCcDZ4V+6aVDkWbNmBoQ5NUp7Oww=
@@ -419,6 +576,8 @@ go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/stdout/stdoutmetric v1.44.0 h1:hqxVTu/GtBF+vJ
 go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/stdout/stdoutmetric v1.44.0/go.mod h1:z5fVEF4X5v0ESvlJqBrrFlBVoj5EQuefZpzsu7R+x5Q=
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+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/zipkin v1.44.0 h1:zv7PRYGLrQHkdeZj0c5SNAZOJcw55XgaTezUkNpwA+w=
+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/zipkin v1.44.0/go.mod h1:3+VZyCi6hFW+UuxFF+wSOvwsOwncfBpQfP7Qdb3JXKg=
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@@ -443,77 +602,97 @@ go.uber.org/mock v0.6.0 h1:hyF9dfmbgIX5EfOdasqLsWD6xqpNZlXblLB/Dbnwv3Y=
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@@ -522,6 +701,7 @@ golang.org/x/term v0.28.0/go.mod h1:Sw/lC2IAUZ92udQNf3WodGtn4k/XoLyZoh8v/8uiwek=
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@@ -529,32 +709,40 @@ golang.org/x/text v0.13.0/go.mod h1:TvPlkZtksWOMsz7fbANvkp4WM8x/WCo/om8BMLbz+aE=
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--- a/backend/internal/api/dto.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/dto.go
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+)
+
+// apiResponseDto is the full representation of an API including its permissions
+type apiResponseDto struct {
+	ID          string                     `json:"id"`
+	Name        string                     `json:"name"`
+	Resource    string                     `json:"resource"`
+	CreatedAt   datatype.DateTime          `json:"createdAt"`
+	Permissions []apiPermissionResponseDto `json:"permissions"`
+}
+
+type apiPermissionResponseDto struct {
+	ID          string  `json:"id"`
+	Key         string  `json:"key"`
+	Name        string  `json:"name"`
+	Description *string `json:"description,omitempty"`
+}
+
+// apiCreateDto is the payload for creating an API
+// The resource identifier is only accepted here because changing it later would invalidate every token already minted for the API
+type apiCreateDto struct {
+	Name     string `json:"name" binding:"required,min=1,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
+	Resource string `json:"resource" binding:"required,resource_uri,max=350" unorm:"nfc"`
+}
+
+// apiUpdateDto is the payload for updating an API
+// The resource identifier is intentionally not updatable
+type apiUpdateDto struct {
+	Name string `json:"name" binding:"required,min=1,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
+}
+
+type apiPermissionInputDto struct {
+	Key         string  `json:"key" binding:"required,min=1,max=128" unorm:"nfc"`
+	Name        string  `json:"name" binding:"required,min=1,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
+	Description *string `json:"description" binding:"omitempty,max=200"`
+}
+
+// apiPermissionsUpdateDto replaces the full permission set of an API
+type apiPermissionsUpdateDto struct {
+	Permissions []apiPermissionInputDto `json:"permissions" binding:"omitempty,dive"`
+}
+
+// clientApiAccessDto is the set of API permissions a client is allowed to request, split by subject type
+// User-delegated permissions may be requested on behalf of a signed-in user, client permissions may be obtained by the client itself through the client credentials grant
+type clientApiAccessDto struct {
+	UserDelegatedPermissionIDs []string `json:"userDelegatedPermissionIds"`
+	ClientPermissionIDs        []string `json:"clientPermissionIds"`
+}
+
+type clientApiAccessUpdateDto struct {
+	UserDelegatedPermissionIDs []string `json:"userDelegatedPermissionIds" binding:"omitempty,dive,required"`
+	ClientPermissionIDs        []string `json:"clientPermissionIds" binding:"omitempty,dive,required"`
+}
--- a/backend/internal/api/handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/handler.go
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	"net/http"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+)
+
+type handler struct {
+	service *Service
+}
+
+func newHandler(service *Service) *handler {
+	return &handler{service: service}
+}
+
+// list godoc
+// @Summary List APIs
+// @Description Get a paginated list of APIs with optional search and sorting
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Produce json
+// @Param search query string false "Search term to filter APIs by name or resource"
+// @Param pagination[page] query int false "Page number for pagination" default(1)
+// @Param pagination[limit] query int false "Number of items per page" default(20)
+// @Param sort[column] query string false "Column to sort by"
+// @Param sort[direction] query string false "Sort direction (asc or desc)" default("asc")
+// @Success 200 {object} dto.Paginated[apiResponseDto]
+// @Router /api/apis [get]
+func (h *handler) list(c *gin.Context) {
+	search := c.Query("search")
+	listRequestOptions := utils.ParseListRequestOptions(c)
+
+	apis, pagination, err := h.service.List(c.Request.Context(), search, listRequestOptions)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	items := make([]apiResponseDto, len(apis))
+	for i, api := range apis {
+		var item apiResponseDto
+		if err := dto.MapStruct(api, &item); err != nil {
+			_ = c.Error(err)
+			return
+		}
+		item.Resource = api.Audience
+		items[i] = item
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.Paginated[apiResponseDto]{
+		Data:       items,
+		Pagination: pagination,
+	})
+}
+
+// get godoc
+// @Summary Get API by ID
+// @Description Retrieve a single API including its permissions
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Produce json
+// @Param id path string true "API ID"
+// @Success 200 {object} apiResponseDto
+// @Router /api/apis/{id} [get]
+func (h *handler) get(c *gin.Context) {
+	api, err := h.service.Get(c.Request.Context(), nil, c.Param("id"))
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	h.respond(c, http.StatusOK, api)
+}
+
+// create godoc
+// @Summary Create API
+// @Description Create a new API resource server
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Accept json
+// @Produce json
+// @Param api body apiCreateDto true "API information"
+// @Success 201 {object} apiResponseDto "Created API"
+// @Router /api/apis [post]
+func (h *handler) create(c *gin.Context) {
+	var input apiCreateDto
+	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(c, &input); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	api, err := h.service.Create(c.Request.Context(), input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	h.respond(c, http.StatusCreated, api)
+}
+
+// update godoc
+// @Summary Update API
+// @Description Update an existing API by ID
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Accept json
+// @Produce json
+// @Param id path string true "API ID"
+// @Param api body apiUpdateDto true "API information"
+// @Success 200 {object} apiResponseDto "Updated API"
+// @Router /api/apis/{id} [put]
+func (h *handler) update(c *gin.Context) {
+	var input apiUpdateDto
+	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(c, &input); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	api, err := h.service.Update(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("id"), input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	h.respond(c, http.StatusOK, api)
+}
+
+// delete godoc
+// @Summary Delete API
+// @Description Delete an API by ID
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Param id path string true "API ID"
+// @Success 204 "No Content"
+// @Router /api/apis/{id} [delete]
+func (h *handler) delete(c *gin.Context) {
+	if err := h.service.Delete(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("id")); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
+}
+
+// updatePermissions godoc
+// @Summary Update API permissions
+// @Description Replace the full set of permissions for an API
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Accept json
+// @Produce json
+// @Param id path string true "API ID"
+// @Param permissions body apiPermissionsUpdateDto true "Permissions to set"
+// @Success 200 {object} apiResponseDto "Updated API"
+// @Router /api/apis/{id}/permissions [put]
+func (h *handler) updatePermissions(c *gin.Context) {
+	var input apiPermissionsUpdateDto
+	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(c, &input); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	api, err := h.service.UpdatePermissions(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("id"), input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	h.respond(c, http.StatusOK, api)
+}
+
+// getClientAccess godoc
+// @Summary Get client API access
+// @Description Get the API permissions an OIDC client is allowed to request, split into user-delegated and client (machine-to-machine) access
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Produce json
+// @Param clientId path string true "OIDC Client ID"
+// @Success 200 {object} clientApiAccessDto
+// @Router /api/api-access/{clientId} [get]
+func (h *handler) getClientAccess(c *gin.Context) {
+	access, err := h.service.GetClientAPIAccess(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("clientId"))
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, newClientApiAccessDto(access))
+}
+
+// updateClientAccess godoc
+// @Summary Update client API access
+// @Description Replace the API permissions an OIDC client is allowed to request, split into user-delegated and client (machine-to-machine) access
+// @Tags APIs
+// @Accept json
+// @Produce json
+// @Param clientId path string true "OIDC Client ID"
+// @Param access body clientApiAccessUpdateDto true "Allowed permission IDs per subject type"
+// @Success 200 {object} clientApiAccessDto
+// @Router /api/api-access/{clientId} [put]
+func (h *handler) updateClientAccess(c *gin.Context) {
+	var input clientApiAccessUpdateDto
+	err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	applied, err := h.service.SetClientAPIAccess(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("clientId"), ClientAPIAccess(input))
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, newClientApiAccessDto(applied))
+}
+
+// newClientApiAccessDto always serializes both permission lists as arrays rather than null
+func newClientApiAccessDto(access ClientAPIAccess) clientApiAccessDto {
+	dto := clientApiAccessDto(access)
+	if dto.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs == nil {
+		dto.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs = []string{}
+	}
+	if dto.ClientPermissionIDs == nil {
+		dto.ClientPermissionIDs = []string{}
+	}
+	return dto
+}
+
+func (h *handler) respond(c *gin.Context, status int, api API) {
+	var responseDto apiResponseDto
+	if err := dto.MapStruct(api, &responseDto); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+	responseDto.Resource = api.Audience
+	c.JSON(status, responseDto)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/api/models.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/models.go
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
+)
+
+type API struct {
+	model.Base
+
+	Name      string `sortable:"true"`
+	Audience  string `sortable:"true"`
+	UpdatedAt *datatype.DateTime
+
+	Permissions []Permission `gorm:"foreignKey:APIID;references:ID;constraint:OnDelete:CASCADE"`
+}
+
+type Permission struct {
+	model.Base
+
+	APIID       string `gorm:"column:api_id"`
+	Key         string `sortable:"true"`
+	Name        string
+	Description *string
+}
+
+func (Permission) TableName() string { return "api_permissions" }
+
+type OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission struct {
+	OidcClientID    string
+	APIPermissionID string
+	SubjectType     oidc.SubjectType
+}
+
+func (OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission) TableName() string {
+	return "oidc_clients_allowed_api_permissions"
+}
--- a/backend/internal/api/module.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/module.go
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	"context"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
+)
+
+type Dependencies struct {
+	DB *gorm.DB
+	// Issuer is the OpenID Provider issuer URL, reserved so a custom API cannot claim it as its audience
+	Issuer string
+}
+
+type Module struct {
+	service *Service
+	handler *handler
+}
+
+func New(deps Dependencies) *Module {
+	service := newService(deps.DB, deps.Issuer)
+	return &Module{
+		service: service,
+		handler: newHandler(service),
+	}
+}
+
+// ClientAPIScopes implements the OIDC module's APIAccessProvider interface
+func (m *Module) ClientAPIScopes(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, clientID string) (scopes []string, audiences []string, err error) {
+	return m.service.ClientAPIScopesAndAudiences(ctx, tx, clientID)
+}
+
+// AllowedScopesForAudience implements the OIDC module's APIAccessProvider interface
+func (m *Module) AllowedScopesForAudience(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, clientID, audience string, subjectType oidc.SubjectType) (scopes []string, apiExists bool, err error) {
+	return m.service.AllowedScopesForAudience(ctx, tx, clientID, audience, subjectType)
+}
+
+// DescribePermissions implements the OIDC module's APIAccessProvider interface
+func (m *Module) DescribePermissions(ctx context.Context, audience string, keys []string) ([]dto.ScopeInfoDto, error) {
+	permissions, err := m.service.DescribePermissions(ctx, audience, keys)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	infos := make([]dto.ScopeInfoDto, len(permissions))
+	for i, permission := range permissions {
+		description := ""
+		if permission.Description != nil {
+			description = *permission.Description
+		}
+		infos[i] = dto.ScopeInfoDto{Key: permission.Key, Name: permission.Name, Description: description}
+	}
+
+	return infos, nil
+}
+
+// RegisterRoutes mounts the admin CRUD endpoints
+// adminAuth is passed in as a gin handler so the module does not import internal/middleware
+func (m *Module) RegisterRoutes(apiGroup *gin.RouterGroup, adminAuth gin.HandlerFunc) {
+	apis := apiGroup.Group("/apis")
+	apis.Use(adminAuth)
+	apis.GET("", m.handler.list)
+	apis.POST("", m.handler.create)
+	apis.GET("/:id", m.handler.get)
+	apis.PUT("/:id", m.handler.update)
+	apis.DELETE("/:id", m.handler.delete)
+	apis.PUT("/:id/permissions", m.handler.updatePermissions)
+
+	// The per-client API-access allow-list lives on a separate path so it does not collide with the /apis/:id wildcard
+	access := apiGroup.Group("/api-access")
+	access.Use(adminAuth)
+	access.GET("/:clientId", m.handler.getClientAccess)
+	access.PUT("/:clientId", m.handler.updateClientAccess)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/api/service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/service.go
@@ -0,0 +1,484 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/ory/fosite"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+	"gorm.io/gorm/clause"
+)
+
+// isPermissionKeyReserved reports whether the key is a scope or claim name owned by Pocket ID's built-in identity layer
+// A custom API permission must not reuse one, otherwise its scope string would collide with a standard OIDC scope or claim
+func isPermissionKeyReserved(key string) bool {
+	switch strings.ToLower(key) {
+	case "openid", "profile", "email", "email_verified", "groups", "offline_access":
+		return true
+	default:
+		return false
+	}
+}
+
+// isValidPermissionKey reports whether the key consists only of RFC 6749 scope-token characters, which are printable ASCII without space, double-quote or backslash
+// This keeps a key safe as a space-delimited value in the token scope claim and free of the control character used to qualify consent records
+func isValidPermissionKey(key string) bool {
+	return fosite.IsValidScopeToken(key)
+}
+
+// Service holds the business logic for managing APIs and their permissions
+type Service struct {
+	db     *gorm.DB
+	issuer string
+}
+
+func newService(db *gorm.DB, issuer string) *Service {
+	return &Service{db: db, issuer: issuer}
+}
+
+// isIssuerAudience reports whether the audience refers to Pocket ID itself (the issuer)
+// A custom API must not claim the issuer as its audience, otherwise its tokens would be indistinguishable from Pocket ID's own identity tokens
+func isIssuerAudience(audience, issuer string) bool {
+	return issuer != "" && strings.ToLower(strings.TrimRight(audience, "/")) == issuer
+}
+
+func (s *Service) List(ctx context.Context, search string, listRequestOptions utils.ListRequestOptions) (apis []API, response utils.PaginationResponse, err error) {
+	query := s.db.
+		WithContext(ctx).
+		Preload("Permissions").
+		Model(&API{})
+
+	if listRequestOptions.Sort.Column == "resource" {
+		listRequestOptions.Sort.Column = "audience"
+	}
+
+	if search != "" {
+		like := "%" + search + "%"
+		query = query.Where("name LIKE ? OR audience LIKE ?", like, like)
+	}
+
+	response, err = utils.PaginateFilterAndSort(listRequestOptions, query, &apis)
+	return apis, response, err
+}
+
+// Get loads an API and its permissions
+func (s *Service) Get(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, id string) (api API, err error) {
+	query := s.db.WithContext(ctx)
+	if tx != nil {
+		query = tx.WithContext(ctx).Clauses(clause.Locking{Strength: "UPDATE"})
+	}
+
+	err = query.
+		Preload("Permissions").
+		Where("id = ?", id).
+		First(&api).
+		Error
+	return api, err
+}
+
+func (s *Service) Create(ctx context.Context, input apiCreateDto) (api API, err error) {
+	// Reject the issuer as an audience so a custom API cannot impersonate Pocket ID's own identity tokens
+	if isIssuerAudience(input.Resource, s.issuer) {
+		return API{}, &common.ValidationError{Message: "the resource is reserved by Pocket ID and cannot be used for a custom API"}
+	}
+
+	api = API{
+		Name:     input.Name,
+		Audience: input.Resource,
+	}
+
+	err = s.db.WithContext(ctx).Create(&api).Error
+	if err != nil {
+		if errors.Is(err, gorm.ErrDuplicatedKey) {
+			return API{}, &common.AlreadyInUseError{Property: "resource"}
+		}
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	return api, nil
+}
+
+func (s *Service) Update(ctx context.Context, id string, input apiUpdateDto) (api API, err error) {
+	tx := s.db.Begin()
+	defer func() {
+		tx.Rollback()
+	}()
+
+	api, err = s.Get(ctx, tx, id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	api.Name = input.Name
+	api.UpdatedAt = new(datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
+
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Save(&api).Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	if err = tx.Commit().Error; err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	return api, nil
+}
+
+func (s *Service) Delete(ctx context.Context, id string) error {
+	tx := s.db.Begin()
+	defer func() {
+		tx.Rollback()
+	}()
+
+	api, err := s.Get(ctx, tx, id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if err = s.deletePermissions(ctx, tx, collectIDs(api.Permissions)); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Delete(&API{}, "id = ?", id).Error; err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return tx.Commit().Error
+}
+
+// UpdatePermissions replaces the full permission set of an API, matching existing permissions by key
+// Unchanged keys keep their grants, removed keys and their client grants are deleted, and new keys are inserted
+func (s *Service) UpdatePermissions(ctx context.Context, id string, input apiPermissionsUpdateDto) (api API, err error) {
+	tx := s.db.Begin()
+	defer func() {
+		tx.Rollback()
+	}()
+
+	api, err = s.Get(ctx, tx, id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	// Reject keys with invalid characters, that collide with Pocket ID's reserved scopes and claims, or that repeat within the request before persisting anything
+	// A duplicate key would otherwise be silently coalesced last-wins into the map below, dropping a row behind a 200
+	seen := make(map[string]struct{}, len(input.Permissions))
+	for _, permission := range input.Permissions {
+		if !isValidPermissionKey(permission.Key) {
+			return API{}, &common.ValidationError{Message: fmt.Sprintf("the permission key %q contains invalid characters", permission.Key)}
+		}
+		if isPermissionKeyReserved(permission.Key) {
+			return API{}, &common.ValidationError{Message: fmt.Sprintf("the permission key %q is reserved by Pocket ID", permission.Key)}
+		}
+		_, ok := seen[permission.Key]
+		if ok {
+			return API{}, &common.ValidationError{Message: fmt.Sprintf("the permission key %q is listed more than once", permission.Key)}
+		}
+		seen[permission.Key] = struct{}{}
+	}
+
+	existing := make(map[string]Permission, len(api.Permissions))
+	for _, p := range api.Permissions {
+		existing[p.Key] = p
+	}
+
+	wanted := make(map[string]apiPermissionInputDto, len(input.Permissions))
+	var removedIDs []string
+	for _, in := range input.Permissions {
+		wanted[in.Key] = in
+	}
+
+	// Delete permissions whose key is no longer wanted
+	for key, p := range existing {
+		if _, ok := wanted[key]; !ok {
+			removedIDs = append(removedIDs, p.ID)
+		}
+	}
+	if err = s.deletePermissions(ctx, tx, removedIDs); err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	// Insert new keys and update the display fields of existing ones
+	for key, in := range wanted {
+		if cur, ok := existing[key]; ok {
+			err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+				Model(&Permission{}).
+				Where("id = ?", cur.ID).
+				Updates(map[string]any{"name": in.Name, "description": in.Description}).
+				Error
+			if err != nil {
+				return API{}, err
+			}
+			continue
+		}
+
+		newPermission := Permission{
+			APIID:       api.ID,
+			Key:         in.Key,
+			Name:        in.Name,
+			Description: in.Description,
+		}
+		if err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Create(&newPermission).Error; err != nil {
+			return API{}, err
+		}
+	}
+
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Model(&API{}).
+		Where("id = ?", api.ID).
+		Update("updated_at", new(datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	api, err = s.Get(ctx, tx, id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	if err = tx.Commit().Error; err != nil {
+		return API{}, err
+	}
+
+	return api, nil
+}
+
+// ClientAPIAccess is the set of API permissions granted to a client, split by the subject the resulting tokens act for
+// User-delegated permissions may be requested on behalf of a signed-in user, client permissions may be obtained by the client itself through the client credentials grant
+type ClientAPIAccess struct {
+	UserDelegatedPermissionIDs []string
+	ClientPermissionIDs        []string
+}
+
+// GetClientAPIAccess returns the API permissions a client is allowed to request, split by subject type
+// Only custom-API permissions are tracked here because the identity scopes are freely requestable by every client
+func (s *Service) GetClientAPIAccess(ctx context.Context, clientID string) (access ClientAPIAccess, err error) {
+	var rows []OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission
+	err = s.db.WithContext(ctx).
+		Where("oidc_client_id = ?", clientID).
+		Find(&rows).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+
+	for _, row := range rows {
+		switch row.SubjectType {
+		case oidc.SubjectTypeClient:
+			access.ClientPermissionIDs = append(access.ClientPermissionIDs, row.APIPermissionID)
+		case oidc.SubjectTypeUser:
+			access.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs = append(access.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs, row.APIPermissionID)
+		default:
+			// Nop - ignore
+		}
+	}
+
+	return access, nil
+}
+
+// SetClientAPIAccess replaces the client's API-access grants for both subject types with the given permission IDs
+// Unknown permission IDs are ignored
+// It returns the access that was actually applied
+func (s *Service) SetClientAPIAccess(ctx context.Context, clientID string, access ClientAPIAccess) (applied ClientAPIAccess, err error) {
+	tx := s.db.Begin()
+	defer func() {
+		tx.Rollback()
+	}()
+
+	// Ensure the client exists so callers get a 404 for an unknown client
+	var client model.OidcClient
+	if err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Select("id").Where("id = ?", clientID).First(&client).Error; err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+
+	applied.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs, err = s.filterAssignablePermissionIDs(ctx, tx, access.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	if err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+	applied.ClientPermissionIDs, err = s.filterAssignablePermissionIDs(ctx, tx, access.ClientPermissionIDs)
+	if err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+
+	// Replace the grants for this client
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Where("oidc_client_id = ?", clientID).
+		Delete(&OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{}).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+
+	rows := make([]OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission, 0, len(applied.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)+len(applied.ClientPermissionIDs))
+	for _, permissionID := range applied.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs {
+		rows = append(rows, OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{OidcClientID: clientID, APIPermissionID: permissionID, SubjectType: oidc.SubjectTypeUser})
+	}
+	for _, permissionID := range applied.ClientPermissionIDs {
+		rows = append(rows, OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{OidcClientID: clientID, APIPermissionID: permissionID, SubjectType: oidc.SubjectTypeClient})
+	}
+	if len(rows) > 0 {
+		if err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Create(&rows).Error; err != nil {
+			return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+		}
+	}
+
+	if err = tx.Commit().Error; err != nil {
+		return ClientAPIAccess{}, err
+	}
+
+	return applied, nil
+}
+
+// ClientAPIScopesAndAudiences returns the permission keys a client may request and the distinct audiences of the custom APIs those permissions belong to, across both subject types
+// The OIDC module uses this to widen fosite's scope and audience validation for the client; the per-flow subject-type enforcement happens when the resource is resolved
+func (s *Service) ClientAPIScopesAndAudiences(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, clientID string) (scopes []string, audiences []string, err error) {
+	if tx == nil {
+		tx = s.db
+	}
+
+	var rows []struct {
+		Key      string
+		Audience string
+	}
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Table("oidc_clients_allowed_api_permissions AS g").
+		Select("api_permissions.key AS key, apis.audience AS audience").
+		Joins("JOIN api_permissions ON api_permissions.id = g.api_permission_id").
+		Joins("JOIN apis ON apis.id = api_permissions.api_id").
+		Where("g.oidc_client_id = ?", clientID).
+		Scan(&rows).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	scopeSeen := make(map[string]struct{}, len(rows))
+	audienceSeen := make(map[string]struct{}, len(rows))
+	scopes = make([]string, 0, len(rows))
+	audiences = make([]string, 0, len(rows))
+	for _, row := range rows {
+		if _, ok := scopeSeen[row.Key]; !ok {
+			scopeSeen[row.Key] = struct{}{}
+			scopes = append(scopes, row.Key)
+		}
+		if _, ok := audienceSeen[row.Audience]; !ok {
+			audienceSeen[row.Audience] = struct{}{}
+			audiences = append(audiences, row.Audience)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return scopes, audiences, nil
+}
+
+// AllowedScopesForAudience returns the permission keys the client is allowed for the API identified by the given audience and subject type, plus whether such an API exists
+func (s *Service) AllowedScopesForAudience(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, clientID, audience string, subjectType oidc.SubjectType) (scopes []string, apiExists bool, err error) {
+	if tx == nil {
+		tx = s.db
+	}
+
+	var api API
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Select("id").
+		Where("audience = ?", audience).
+		First(&api).
+		Error
+	if errors.Is(err, gorm.ErrRecordNotFound) {
+		return nil, false, nil
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, false, err
+	}
+
+	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Table("api_permissions").
+		Select("api_permissions.key").
+		Joins("JOIN oidc_clients_allowed_api_permissions g ON g.api_permission_id = api_permissions.id AND g.oidc_client_id = ? AND g.subject_type = ?", clientID, subjectType).
+		Where("api_permissions.api_id = ?", api.ID).
+		Pluck("api_permissions.key", &scopes).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, true, err
+	}
+
+	return scopes, true, nil
+}
+
+// DescribePermissions returns the permission rows of the API identified by the given audience whose key is in keys
+// The consent screen uses these to show friendly names instead of raw scope keys
+func (s *Service) DescribePermissions(ctx context.Context, audience string, keys []string) ([]Permission, error) {
+	if len(keys) == 0 {
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+
+	var permissions []Permission
+	err := s.db.WithContext(ctx).
+		Model(&Permission{}).
+		Joins("JOIN apis ON apis.id = api_permissions.api_id").
+		Where("apis.audience = ? AND api_permissions.key IN ?", audience, keys).
+		Find(&permissions).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return permissions, nil
+}
+
+// filterAssignablePermissionIDs returns the subset of the given permission IDs that exist
+func (s *Service) filterAssignablePermissionIDs(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, permissionIDs []string) ([]string, error) {
+	if len(permissionIDs) == 0 {
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+
+	var valid []string
+	err := tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Model(&Permission{}).
+		Where("id IN ?", permissionIDs).
+		Pluck("id", &valid).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return valid, nil
+}
+
+// deletePermissions removes permissions by ID along with any client allow-list grants that reference them
+// The explicit grant delete keeps this correct even when the database does not enforce ON DELETE CASCADE at runtime
+func (s *Service) deletePermissions(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, permissionIDs []string) error {
+	if tx == nil {
+		tx = s.db
+	}
+	if len(permissionIDs) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	err := tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Where("api_permission_id IN ?", permissionIDs).
+		Delete(&OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{}).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return tx.WithContext(ctx).
+		Where("id IN ?", permissionIDs).
+		Delete(&Permission{}).
+		Error
+}
+
+func collectIDs(permissions []Permission) []string {
+	ids := make([]string, len(permissions))
+	for i, p := range permissions {
+		ids[i] = p.ID
+	}
+	return ids
+}
--- a/backend/internal/api/service_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/api/service_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,283 @@
+package api
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
+	testutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
+)
+
+func TestAPICrudAndPermissionDiff(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	created, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders API", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.NotEmpty(t, created.ID)
+
+	// The resource is unique.
+	_, err = svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Dup", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, &common.AlreadyInUseError{})
+
+	desc := "Read orders"
+	updated, err := svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), created.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read orders", Description: &desc},
+		{Key: "write:orders", Name: "Write orders"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Len(t, updated.Permissions, 2)
+
+	// Grant a client the read:orders permission for both subject types, then remove that permission
+	// and confirm the grants are cleaned up while write:orders (and its key) survives.
+	readPerm := findPermission(updated, "read:orders")
+	require.NotNil(t, readPerm)
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&model.OidcClient{Base: model.Base{ID: "client-1"}, Name: "Client 1"}).Error)
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{OidcClientID: "client-1", APIPermissionID: readPerm.ID, SubjectType: oidc.SubjectTypeUser}).Error)
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{OidcClientID: "client-1", APIPermissionID: readPerm.ID, SubjectType: oidc.SubjectTypeClient}).Error)
+
+	updated, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), created.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "write:orders", Name: "Write orders (renamed)"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, updated.Permissions, 1)
+	assert.Equal(t, "write:orders", updated.Permissions[0].Key)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Write orders (renamed)", updated.Permissions[0].Name)
+
+	var grantCount int64
+	require.NoError(t, db.Model(&OidcClientAllowedAPIPermission{}).Where("api_permission_id = ?", readPerm.ID).Count(&grantCount).Error)
+	assert.Equal(t, int64(0), grantCount)
+
+	renamed, err := svc.Update(t.Context(), created.ID, apiUpdateDto{Name: "Orders"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Orders", renamed.Name)
+	require.NotNil(t, renamed.UpdatedAt)
+
+	require.NoError(t, svc.Delete(t.Context(), created.ID))
+	_, err = svc.Get(t.Context(), nil, created.ID)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+}
+
+func TestClientApiAccessAllowList(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&model.OidcClient{Base: model.Base{ID: "client-1"}, Name: "Client 1"}).Error)
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	orders, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read"},
+		{Key: "write:orders", Name: "Write"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	readID := findPermission(orders, "read:orders").ID
+	writeID := findPermission(orders, "write:orders").ID
+
+	// Unknown IDs are filtered out, and the subject types are stored independently.
+	applied, err := svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1", ClientAPIAccess{
+		UserDelegatedPermissionIDs: []string{readID, "does-not-exist"},
+		ClientPermissionIDs:        []string{writeID, "does-not-exist"},
+	})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{readID}, applied.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{writeID}, applied.ClientPermissionIDs)
+
+	got, err := svc.GetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{readID}, got.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{writeID}, got.ClientPermissionIDs)
+
+	// The same permission can be granted for both subject types, and both sets are fully replaced on each call.
+	_, err = svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1", ClientAPIAccess{
+		UserDelegatedPermissionIDs: []string{readID, writeID},
+		ClientPermissionIDs:        []string{readID},
+	})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	got, err = svc.GetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{readID, writeID}, got.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{readID}, got.ClientPermissionIDs)
+
+	// Clearing one subject type leaves the other untouched.
+	_, err = svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1", ClientAPIAccess{ClientPermissionIDs: []string{readID}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	got, err = svc.GetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Empty(t, got.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{readID}, got.ClientPermissionIDs)
+
+	// Clearing everything.
+	_, err = svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1", ClientAPIAccess{})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	got, err = svc.GetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Empty(t, got.UserDelegatedPermissionIDs)
+	assert.Empty(t, got.ClientPermissionIDs)
+
+	// An unknown client is rejected (surfaces as 404 at the HTTP layer).
+	_, err = svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "nope", ClientAPIAccess{UserDelegatedPermissionIDs: []string{readID}})
+	require.Error(t, err)
+}
+
+// TestAllowedScopesForAudienceFiltersBySubjectType guards that the scopes resolved for a flow
+// only come from the grants of that flow's subject type.
+func TestAllowedScopesForAudienceFiltersBySubjectType(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&model.OidcClient{Base: model.Base{ID: "client-1"}, Name: "Client 1"}).Error)
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	orders, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read"},
+		{Key: "write:orders", Name: "Write"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	readID := findPermission(orders, "read:orders").ID
+	writeID := findPermission(orders, "write:orders").ID
+
+	_, err = svc.SetClientAPIAccess(t.Context(), "client-1", ClientAPIAccess{
+		UserDelegatedPermissionIDs: []string{readID},
+		ClientPermissionIDs:        []string{writeID},
+	})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	userScopes, exists, err := svc.AllowedScopesForAudience(t.Context(), nil, "client-1", "https://api.orders.example.com", oidc.SubjectTypeUser)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.True(t, exists)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"read:orders"}, userScopes)
+
+	clientScopes, exists, err := svc.AllowedScopesForAudience(t.Context(), nil, "client-1", "https://api.orders.example.com", oidc.SubjectTypeClient)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.True(t, exists)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"write:orders"}, clientScopes)
+
+	// The fosite widening still sees the union of both subject types.
+	scopes, audiences, err := svc.ClientAPIScopesAndAudiences(t.Context(), nil, "client-1")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"read:orders", "write:orders"}, scopes)
+	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"https://api.orders.example.com"}, audiences)
+}
+
+func TestUpdatePermissionsRejectsReservedKeys(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	for _, key := range []string{"openid", "profile", "email", "email_verified", "groups", "offline_access", "Email"} {
+		_, err := svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+			{Key: key, Name: "Reserved"},
+		}})
+		require.Error(t, err, "key %q must be rejected", key)
+		var validationErr *common.ValidationError
+		require.ErrorAs(t, err, &validationErr)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestUpdatePermissionsRejectsDuplicateKeys(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// Two rows with the same key must be rejected rather than silently coalesced last-wins
+	_, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read"},
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read again"},
+	}})
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	var validationErr *common.ValidationError
+	require.ErrorAs(t, err, &validationErr)
+}
+
+func TestUpdatePermissionsRejectsInvalidKeyCharacters(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// A space corrupts the space-delimited scope claim, and the unit separator is the consent delimiter
+	for _, key := range []string{"read orders", "read\x1forders", "read\"orders", "bad\\key", "tab\tkey"} {
+		_, err := svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+			{Key: key, Name: "Invalid"},
+		}})
+		require.Error(t, err, "key %q must be rejected", key)
+		var validationErr *common.ValidationError
+		require.ErrorAs(t, err, &validationErr)
+	}
+
+	// A valid scope-token key is accepted
+	_, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+}
+
+func TestCreateRejectsIssuerResource(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	const issuer = "https://id.example.com"
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db, Issuer: issuer}).service
+
+	// The issuer itself, a trailing-slash variant, and a different-cased variant are all reserved
+	for _, resource := range []string{issuer, issuer + "/", "https://ID.example.com"} {
+		_, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Reserved", Resource: resource})
+		require.Error(t, err, "resource %q must be rejected", resource)
+		var validationErr *common.ValidationError
+		require.ErrorAs(t, err, &validationErr)
+	}
+
+	// A normal resource is accepted
+	_, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+}
+
+func TestCreateAcceptsAbsoluteResourceURIs(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	for _, resource := range []string{"https://api.orders.example.com", "api://PocketID", "urn:my-app"} {
+		_, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: resource})
+		require.NoError(t, err, "resource %q must be accepted", resource)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDescribePermissions(t *testing.T) {
+	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+	svc := New(Dependencies{DB: db}).service
+
+	orders, err := svc.Create(t.Context(), apiCreateDto{Name: "Orders", Resource: "https://api.orders.example.com"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	desc := "Read orders"
+	_, err = svc.UpdatePermissions(t.Context(), orders.ID, apiPermissionsUpdateDto{Permissions: []apiPermissionInputDto{
+		{Key: "read:orders", Name: "Read orders", Description: &desc},
+		{Key: "write:orders", Name: "Write orders"},
+	}})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	infos, err := svc.DescribePermissions(t.Context(), "https://api.orders.example.com", []string{"read:orders", "unknown"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, infos, 1)
+	assert.Equal(t, "read:orders", infos[0].Key)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Read orders", infos[0].Name)
+	require.NotNil(t, infos[0].Description)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Read orders", *infos[0].Description)
+}
+
+func findPermission(api API, key string) *Permission {
+	for i := range api.Permissions {
+		if api.Permissions[i].Key == key {
+			return &api.Permissions[i]
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/dto/api_key_dto.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/api_key_dto.go
@@ -1,20 +1,20 @@
-package dto
+package apikey

 import (
 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
 )

-type ApiKeyCreateDto struct {
+type apiKeyCreateDto struct {
 	Name        string            `json:"name" binding:"required,min=3,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
 	Description *string           `json:"description" unorm:"nfc"`
 	ExpiresAt   datatype.DateTime `json:"expiresAt" binding:"required"`
 }

-type ApiKeyRenewDto struct {
+type apiKeyRenewDto struct {
 	ExpiresAt datatype.DateTime `json:"expiresAt" binding:"required"`
 }

-type ApiKeyDto struct {
+type apiKeyDto struct {
 	ID                  string             `json:"id"`
 	Name                string             `json:"name"`
 	Description         *string            `json:"description"`
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ type ApiKeyDto struct {
 	ExpirationEmailSent bool               `json:"expirationEmailSent"`
 }

-type ApiKeyResponseDto struct {
-	ApiKey ApiKeyDto `json:"apiKey"`
+type apiKeyResponseDto struct {
+	ApiKey apiKeyDto `json:"apiKey"`
 	Token  string    `json:"token"`
 }
--- a/backend/internal/apikey/handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/apikey/handler.go
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+package apikey
+
+import (
+	"net/http"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+)
+
+type handler struct {
+	service *Service
+}
+
+func newHandler(service *Service) *handler {
+	return &handler{service: service}
+}
+
+// list godoc
+// @Summary List API keys
+// @Description Get a paginated list of API keys belonging to the current user
+// @Tags API Keys
+// @Param pagination[page] query int false "Page number for pagination" default(1)
+// @Param pagination[limit] query int false "Number of items per page" default(20)
+// @Param sort[column] query string false "Column to sort by"
+// @Param sort[direction] query string false "Sort direction (asc or desc)" default("asc")
+// @Success 200 {object} dto.Paginated[apiKeyDto]
+// @Router /api/api-keys [get]
+func (h *handler) list(c *gin.Context) {
+	listRequestOptions := utils.ParseListRequestOptions(c)
+
+	userID := c.GetString("userID")
+
+	apiKeys, pagination, err := h.service.ListApiKeys(c.Request.Context(), userID, listRequestOptions)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	var apiKeysDto []apiKeyDto
+	if err := dto.MapStructList(apiKeys, &apiKeysDto); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.Paginated[apiKeyDto]{
+		Data:       apiKeysDto,
+		Pagination: pagination,
+	})
+}
+
+// create godoc
+// @Summary Create API key
+// @Description Create a new API key for the current user
+// @Tags API Keys
+// @Param api_key body apiKeyCreateDto true "API key information"
+// @Success 201 {object} apiKeyResponseDto "Created API key with token"
+// @Router /api/api-keys [post]
+func (h *handler) create(c *gin.Context) {
+	userID := c.GetString("userID")
+
+	var input apiKeyCreateDto
+	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(c, &input); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	apiKey, token, err := h.service.CreateApiKey(c.Request.Context(), userID, input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	var responseDto apiKeyDto
+	if err := dto.MapStruct(apiKey, &responseDto); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusCreated, apiKeyResponseDto{
+		ApiKey: responseDto,
+		Token:  token,
+	})
+}
+
+// renew godoc
+// @Summary Renew API key
+// @Description Renew an existing API key by ID
+// @Tags API Keys
+// @Param id path string true "API Key ID"
+// @Success 200 {object} apiKeyResponseDto "Renewed API key with new token"
+// @Router /api/api-keys/{id}/renew [post]
+func (h *handler) renew(c *gin.Context) {
+	userID := c.GetString("userID")
+	apiKeyID := c.Param("id")
+
+	var input apiKeyRenewDto
+	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(c, &input); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	apiKey, token, err := h.service.RenewApiKey(c.Request.Context(), userID, apiKeyID, input.ExpiresAt.ToTime())
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	var responseDto apiKeyDto
+	if err := dto.MapStruct(apiKey, &responseDto); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, apiKeyResponseDto{
+		ApiKey: responseDto,
+		Token:  token,
+	})
+}
+
+// revoke godoc
+// @Summary Revoke API key
+// @Description Revoke (delete) an existing API key by ID
+// @Tags API Keys
+// @Param id path string true "API Key ID"
+// @Success 204 "No Content"
+// @Router /api/api-keys/{id} [delete]
+func (h *handler) revoke(c *gin.Context) {
+	userID := c.GetString("userID")
+	apiKeyID := c.Param("id")
+
+	if err := h.service.RevokeApiKey(c.Request.Context(), userID, apiKeyID); err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/apikey/models.go
+++ b/backend/internal/apikey/models.go
@@ -1,9 +1,13 @@
-package model
+package apikey

-import datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+import (
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+)

+// ApiKey is a personal access token a user can use to authenticate against the API
 type ApiKey struct {
-	Base
+	model.Base

 	Name                string `sortable:"true"`
 	Key                 string
@@ -13,5 +17,5 @@ type ApiKey struct {
 	ExpirationEmailSent bool

 	UserID string
-	User   User
+	User   model.User
 }
--- a/backend/internal/apikey/module.go
+++ b/backend/internal/apikey/module.go
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package apikey
+
+import (
+	"context"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+)
+
+type Dependencies struct {
+	DB           *gorm.DB
+	StaticApiKey string
+}
+
+type Module struct {
+	service *Service
+	handler *handler
+}
+
+func New(ctx context.Context, deps Dependencies) (*Module, error) {
+	service, err := newService(ctx, deps.DB, deps.StaticApiKey)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return &Module{
+		service: service,
+		handler: newHandler(service),
+	}, nil
+}
+
+// RegisterRoutes mounts the API key management endpoints
+// authWithoutApiKey disables API key authentication so an API key cannot be used to mint or renew further API keys
+func (m *Module) RegisterRoutes(apiGroup *gin.RouterGroup, auth, authWithoutApiKey gin.HandlerFunc) {
+	group := apiGroup.Group("/api-keys")
+	group.GET("", auth, m.handler.list)
+	group.POST("", authWithoutApiKey, m.handler.create)
+	group.POST("/:id/renew", authWithoutApiKey, m.handler.renew)
+	group.DELETE("/:id", auth, m.handler.revoke)
+}
+
+// ValidateApiKey resolves the user that owns the given raw API key
+// It is used by the authentication middleware
+func (m *Module) ValidateApiKey(ctx context.Context, apiKey string) (model.User, error) {
+	return m.service.ValidateApiKey(ctx, apiKey)
+}
+
+// ListExpiringApiKeys returns API keys expiring within the given number of days that have not been notified yet
+func (m *Module) ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context, daysAhead int) ([]ApiKey, error) {
+	return m.service.ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx, daysAhead)
+}
+
+// MarkExpirationEmailSent records that the expiration notification email was sent for the given API key
+func (m *Module) MarkExpirationEmailSent(ctx context.Context, apiKeyID string) error {
+	return m.service.MarkExpirationEmailSent(ctx, apiKeyID)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/service/api_key_service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/api_key_service.go
@@ -1,33 +1,32 @@
-package service
+package apikey

 import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
-	"fmt"
 	"time"

-	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/email"
-
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"
 	"gorm.io/gorm/clause"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 )

-const staticApiKeyUserID = "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000"
-
-type ApiKeyService struct {
+// Service holds the business logic for managing user API keys
+type Service struct {
 	db           *gorm.DB
-	emailService *EmailService
+	staticApiKey string
 }

-func NewApiKeyService(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, emailService *EmailService) (*ApiKeyService, error) {
-	s := &ApiKeyService{db: db, emailService: emailService}
+func newService(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, staticApiKey string) (*Service, error) {
+	s := &Service{
+		db:           db,
+		staticApiKey: staticApiKey,
+	}

-	if common.EnvConfig.StaticApiKey == "" {
+	if staticApiKey == "" {
 		err := s.deleteStaticApiKeyUser(ctx)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
@@ -35,16 +34,15 @@ func NewApiKeyService(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, emailService *EmailServi
 	}

 	return s, nil
-
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) ListApiKeys(ctx context.Context, userID string, listRequestOptions utils.ListRequestOptions) ([]model.ApiKey, utils.PaginationResponse, error) {
+func (s *Service) ListApiKeys(ctx context.Context, userID string, listRequestOptions utils.ListRequestOptions) ([]ApiKey, utils.PaginationResponse, error) {
 	query := s.db.
 		WithContext(ctx).
 		Where("user_id = ?", userID).
-		Model(&model.ApiKey{})
+		Model(&ApiKey{})

-	var apiKeys []model.ApiKey
+	var apiKeys []ApiKey
 	pagination, err := utils.PaginateFilterAndSort(listRequestOptions, query, &apiKeys)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, utils.PaginationResponse{}, err
@@ -53,19 +51,19 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) ListApiKeys(ctx context.Context, userID string, listRequ
 	return apiKeys, pagination, nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) CreateApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID string, input dto.ApiKeyCreateDto) (model.ApiKey, string, error) {
+func (s *Service) CreateApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID string, input apiKeyCreateDto) (ApiKey, string, error) {
 	// Check if expiration is in the future
 	if !input.ExpiresAt.ToTime().After(time.Now()) {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyExpirationDateError{}
+		return ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyExpirationDateError{}
 	}

 	// Generate a secure random API key
 	token, err := utils.GenerateRandomAlphanumericString(32)
 	if err != nil {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

-	apiKey := model.ApiKey{
+	apiKey := ApiKey{
 		Name:        input.Name,
 		Key:         utils.CreateSha256Hash(token), // Hash the token for storage
 		Description: input.Description,
@@ -79,48 +77,48 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) CreateApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID string, input d
 		Error
 	if err != nil {
 		if errors.Is(err, gorm.ErrDuplicatedKey) {
-			return model.ApiKey{}, "", &common.AlreadyInUseError{Property: "API key name"}
+			return ApiKey{}, "", &common.AlreadyInUseError{Property: "API key name"}
 		}
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

 	// Return the raw token only once - it cannot be retrieved later
 	return apiKey, token, nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) RenewApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID string, expiration time.Time) (model.ApiKey, string, error) {
+func (s *Service) RenewApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID string, expiration time.Time) (ApiKey, string, error) {
 	// Check if expiration is in the future
 	if !expiration.After(time.Now()) {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyExpirationDateError{}
+		return ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyExpirationDateError{}
 	}

 	tx := s.db.Begin()
 	defer tx.Rollback()

-	var apiKey model.ApiKey
+	var apiKey ApiKey
 	err := tx.
 		WithContext(ctx).
-		Model(&model.ApiKey{}).
+		Model(&ApiKey{}).
 		Where("id = ? AND user_id = ?", apiKeyID, userID).
 		First(&apiKey).
 		Error

 	if err != nil {
 		if errors.Is(err, gorm.ErrRecordNotFound) {
-			return model.ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyNotFoundError{}
+			return ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyNotFoundError{}
 		}
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

 	// Only allow renewal if the key has already expired
 	if apiKey.ExpiresAt.ToTime().After(time.Now()) {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyNotExpiredError{}
+		return ApiKey{}, "", &common.APIKeyNotExpiredError{}
 	}

 	// Generate a secure random API key
 	token, err := utils.GenerateRandomAlphanumericString(32)
 	if err != nil {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

 	apiKey.Key = utils.CreateSha256Hash(token)
@@ -128,18 +126,18 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) RenewApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID string

 	err = tx.WithContext(ctx).Save(&apiKey).Error
 	if err != nil {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

 	if err := tx.Commit().Error; err != nil {
-		return model.ApiKey{}, "", err
+		return ApiKey{}, "", err
 	}

 	return apiKey, token, nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) RevokeApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID string) error {
-	var apiKey model.ApiKey
+func (s *Service) RevokeApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID string) error {
+	var apiKey ApiKey
 	err := s.db.
 		WithContext(ctx).
 		Where("id = ? AND user_id = ?", apiKeyID, userID).
@@ -155,25 +153,25 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) RevokeApiKey(ctx context.Context, userID, apiKeyID strin
 	return nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) ValidateApiKey(ctx context.Context, apiKey string) (model.User, error) {
+func (s *Service) ValidateApiKey(ctx context.Context, apiKey string) (model.User, error) {
 	if apiKey == "" {
 		return model.User{}, &common.NoAPIKeyProvidedError{}
 	}

-	if common.EnvConfig.StaticApiKey != "" && apiKey == common.EnvConfig.StaticApiKey {
+	if s.staticApiKey != "" && apiKey == s.staticApiKey {
 		return s.initStaticApiKeyUser(ctx)
 	}

 	now := time.Now()
 	hashedKey := utils.CreateSha256Hash(apiKey)

-	var key model.ApiKey
+	var key ApiKey
 	err := s.db.
 		WithContext(ctx).
-		Model(&model.ApiKey{}).
+		Model(&ApiKey{}).
 		Clauses(clause.Returning{}).
 		Where("key = ? AND expires_at > ?", hashedKey, datatype.DateTime(now)).
-		Updates(&model.ApiKey{
+		Updates(&ApiKey{
 			LastUsedAt: new(datatype.DateTime(now)),
 		}).
 		Preload("User").
@@ -190,8 +188,8 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) ValidateApiKey(ctx context.Context, apiKey string) (mode
 	return key.User, nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context, daysAhead int) ([]model.ApiKey, error) {
-	var keys []model.ApiKey
+func (s *Service) ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context, daysAhead int) ([]ApiKey, error) {
+	var keys []ApiKey
 	now := time.Now()
 	cutoff := now.AddDate(0, 0, daysAhead)

@@ -205,40 +203,19 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context, daysAhead int)
 	return keys, err
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) SendApiKeyExpiringSoonEmail(ctx context.Context, apiKey model.ApiKey) error {
-	if apiKey.User.Email == nil {
-		return &common.UserEmailNotSetError{}
-	}
-
-	err := SendEmail(ctx, s.emailService, email.Address{
-		Name:  apiKey.User.FullName(),
-		Email: *apiKey.User.Email,
-	}, ApiKeyExpiringSoonTemplate, &ApiKeyExpiringSoonTemplateData{
-		ApiKeyName: apiKey.Name,
-		ExpiresAt:  apiKey.ExpiresAt.ToTime(),
-		Name:       apiKey.User.FirstName,
-	})
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("error sending notification email: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	// Mark the API key as having had an expiration email sent
-	err = s.db.WithContext(ctx).
-		Model(&model.ApiKey{}).
-		Where("id = ?", apiKey.ID).
+// MarkExpirationEmailSent records that the expiration notification email was sent for the given API key
+func (s *Service) MarkExpirationEmailSent(ctx context.Context, apiKeyID string) error {
+	return s.db.WithContext(ctx).
+		Model(&ApiKey{}).
+		Where("id = ?", apiKeyID).
 		Update("expiration_email_sent", true).
 		Error
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("error recording expiration sent email in database: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	return nil
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) initStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) (user model.User, err error) {
+func (s *Service) initStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) (user model.User, err error) {
 	err = s.db.
 		WithContext(ctx).
-		First(&user, "id = ?", staticApiKeyUserID).
+		First(&user, "id = ?", common.StaticApiKeyUserID).
 		Error

 	if err == nil {
@@ -256,7 +233,7 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) initStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) (user model.Us

 	user = model.User{
 		Base: model.Base{
-			ID: staticApiKeyUserID,
+			ID: common.StaticApiKeyUserID,
 		},
 		FirstName:   "Static API User",
 		Username:    "static-api-user-" + usernameSuffix,
@@ -272,9 +249,9 @@ func (s *ApiKeyService) initStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) (user model.Us
 	return user, err
 }

-func (s *ApiKeyService) deleteStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) error {
+func (s *Service) deleteStaticApiKeyUser(ctx context.Context) error {
 	return s.db.
 		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.User{}, "id = ?", staticApiKeyUserID).
+		Delete(&model.User{}, "id = ?", common.StaticApiKeyUserID).
 		Error
 }
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/app_config_middleware.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/app_config_middleware.go
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"sync"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+)
+
+// appConfigCtxKey is the context key used to store the AppConfigResolver in the http.Request's context
+type appConfigCtxKey struct{}
+
+type appConfigResolver func(ctx context.Context) (*AppConfigModel, error)
+
+// AppConfigMiddleware is a Gin middleware that makes the application configuration available to all downstream handlers through the request's context
+type AppConfigMiddleware struct {
+	appConfigService *AppConfigService
+}
+
+func NewAppConfigMiddleware(appConfigService *AppConfigService) *AppConfigMiddleware {
+	return &AppConfigMiddleware{
+		appConfigService: appConfigService,
+	}
+}
+
+// Add returns a Gin middleware that stores an AppConfigResolver in the http.Request's context
+// The resolver loads the application configuration lazily on the first call and caches it for the duration of the request
+func (m *AppConfigMiddleware) Add() gin.HandlerFunc {
+	return func(c *gin.Context) {
+		reqCtx := c.Request.Context()
+
+		// Create a cache for each request in the middleware's scope, so it's unique per each request
+		var (
+			once sync.Once
+			cfg  *AppConfigModel
+			err  error
+		)
+		// Note: the resolver accepts a context argument, it doesn't use the request's own
+		// This can be used for example for tracing
+		resolver := appConfigResolver(func(ctx context.Context) (*AppConfigModel, error) {
+			once.Do(func() {
+				cfg, err = m.appConfigService.GetConfig(ctx)
+			})
+			return cfg, err
+		})
+
+		// Store the resolver in the request's context
+		c.Request = c.Request.WithContext(context.WithValue(reqCtx, appConfigCtxKey{}, resolver))
+
+		c.Next()
+	}
+}
+
+// FromCtx retrieves the app config from the context
+func FromCtx(ctx context.Context) (*AppConfigModel, error) {
+	resolver, ok := ctx.Value(appConfigCtxKey{}).(appConfigResolver)
+	if !ok || resolver == nil {
+		// Indicates a development-time error
+		return nil, errors.New("middleware AppConfigMiddleware was not registered for the handler")
+	}
+
+	return resolver(ctx)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/appconfig_actor.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/appconfig_actor.go
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+	"log/slog"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/actor"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+)
+
+// The AppConfig singleton actor maintains the dynamic configuration for the Pocket ID cluster
+// Instances of Pocket ID should bootstrap the AppConfig's actor upon startup to ensure the config is loaded (and migrated if needed)
+// After startup, Peek can be used for read-only operations such as retrieving the config or listing it
+
+// AppConfigActorType is the actor type for the AppConfig actor
+const AppConfigActorType = "AppConfig"
+
+// appConfigActor is a singleton actor that manages the dynamic app configuration
+type appConfigActor struct {
+	log    *slog.Logger
+	client actor.Client[*AppConfigModel]
+}
+
+// appConfigActorBootstrap is the type for the payload of the init method
+type appConfigActorBootstrap struct {
+	LegacyConfig map[string]string
+}
+
+// NewAppConfigActor allocates a new AppConfig actor
+// It satisfies actor.Factory
+func NewAppConfigActor(actorID string, service *actor.Service) actor.Actor {
+	log := slog.
+		With(
+			slog.String("scope", "actor"),
+			slog.String("actorType", AppConfigActorType),
+			slog.String("actorID", actorID),
+		)
+
+	log.Info("AppConfig actor created")
+
+	return &appConfigActor{
+		log:    log,
+		client: actor.NewActorClient[*AppConfigModel](AppConfigActorType, actorID, service),
+	}
+}
+
+// Bootstrap implements actor.ActorBootstrapper for the singleton actor
+func (a *appConfigActor) Bootstrap(parentCtx context.Context, data actor.Envelope) error {
+	// Load the actor state
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	state, err := a.client.GetState(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error retrieving actor state: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// If we already have a state, nothing else to do
+	if state != nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	// Check if the request data contains legacy config to init from
+	if data != nil {
+		payload := appConfigActorBootstrap{}
+		err = data.Decode(&payload)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("request body is not valid for method 'init': %w", err)
+		}
+
+		if len(payload.LegacyConfig) > 0 {
+			state, err = fromLegacyConfig(payload.LegacyConfig)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("request body is not valid for method 'init': LegacyConfig property could not be parsed: %w", err)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// If we still have no state, generate a new default config
+	if state == nil {
+		state = getDefaultConfig()
+	}
+
+	// Save the updated state
+	ctx, cancel = context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	err = a.client.SetState(ctx, state, nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error saving actor state: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (a *appConfigActor) Peek(parentCtx context.Context, method string, data actor.Envelope) (any, error) {
+	// Only supported method is "get"
+	if method != "get" {
+		return nil, common.ErrUnsupportedActorMethod{Method: method}
+	}
+
+	// Load the actor state
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	state, err := a.client.GetState(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error retrieving actor state: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Return the state
+	return state, nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/legacy_config.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/legacy_config.go
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"time"
+
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+)
+
+// loadLegacyConfig loads the legacy config from the database
+// This was migrated to the "config_migrated" key in the kv table
+func LoadLegacyConfig(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) (map[string]string, error) {
+	// Retrieve the migrated config from the kv table
+	row := model.KV{
+		Key: "config_migrated",
+	}
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	err := db.WithContext(ctx).First(&row).Error
+	switch {
+	case errors.Is(err, gorm.ErrRecordNotFound):
+		// There's no migrated config in the database, nothing to do
+		return nil, nil
+	case err != nil:
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load migrated config from the database: %w", err)
+	case row.Value == nil || len(*row.Value) == 0:
+		// Also no migrated config, nothing to do
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+
+	// The value is a JSON-encoded dictionary
+	res := map[string]string{}
+	err = json.Unmarshal([]byte(*row.Value), &res)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error parsing migrated config: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	if len(res) == 0 {
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+	return res, nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/model.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/model.go
@@ -0,0 +1,271 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"reflect"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/italypaleale/go-kit/utils"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+)
+
+type AppConfigModel struct {
+	// General
+	AppName             AppConfigValue `json:"appName" public:"true"`
+	SessionDuration     AppConfigValue `json:"sessionDuration" type:"int"` // In minutes
+	HomePageURL         AppConfigValue `json:"homePageUrl" public:"true"`
+	EmailsVerified      AppConfigValue `json:"emailsVerified" type:"bool"`
+	AccentColor         AppConfigValue `json:"accentColor" public:"true"`
+	DisableAnimations   AppConfigValue `json:"disableAnimations" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	AllowOwnAccountEdit AppConfigValue `json:"allowOwnAccountEdit" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	AllowUserSignups    AppConfigValue `json:"allowUserSignups" public:"true"`
+
+	SignupDefaultUserGroupIDs AppConfigValue `json:"signupDefaultUserGroupIDs"` // JSON-encoded array of strings
+	SignupDefaultCustomClaims AppConfigValue `json:"signupDefaultCustomClaims"` // JSON-encoded array of {key:string,value:string}
+	// Email
+	RequireUserEmail                           AppConfigValue `json:"requireUserEmail" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	SmtpHost                                   AppConfigValue `json:"smtpHost"`
+	SmtpPort                                   AppConfigValue `json:"smtpPort"`
+	SmtpFrom                                   AppConfigValue `json:"smtpFrom"`
+	SmtpUser                                   AppConfigValue `json:"smtpUser"`
+	SmtpPassword                               AppConfigValue `json:"smtpPassword" sensitive:"true"`
+	SmtpTls                                    AppConfigValue `json:"smtpTls"`
+	SmtpSkipCertVerify                         AppConfigValue `json:"smtpSkipCertVerify" type:"bool"`
+	EmailLoginNotificationEnabled              AppConfigValue `json:"emailLoginNotificationEnabled" type:"bool"`
+	EmailOneTimeAccessAsUnauthenticatedEnabled AppConfigValue `json:"emailOneTimeAccessAsUnauthenticatedEnabled" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	EmailOneTimeAccessAsAdminEnabled           AppConfigValue `json:"emailOneTimeAccessAsAdminEnabled" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	EmailApiKeyExpirationEnabled               AppConfigValue `json:"emailApiKeyExpirationEnabled" type:"bool"`
+	EmailVerificationEnabled                   AppConfigValue `json:"emailVerificationEnabled" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	// LDAP
+	LdapEnabled                        AppConfigValue `json:"ldapEnabled" type:"bool" public:"true"`
+	LdapUrl                            AppConfigValue `json:"ldapUrl"`
+	LdapBindDn                         AppConfigValue `json:"ldapBindDn"`
+	LdapBindPassword                   AppConfigValue `json:"ldapBindPassword" sensitive:"true"`
+	LdapBase                           AppConfigValue `json:"ldapBase"`
+	LdapUserSearchFilter               AppConfigValue `json:"ldapUserSearchFilter"`
+	LdapUserGroupSearchFilter          AppConfigValue `json:"ldapUserGroupSearchFilter"`
+	LdapSkipCertVerify                 AppConfigValue `json:"ldapSkipCertVerify" type:"bool"`
+	LdapAttributeUserUniqueIdentifier  AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserUniqueIdentifier"`
+	LdapAttributeUserUsername          AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserUsername"`
+	LdapAttributeUserEmail             AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserEmail"`
+	LdapAttributeUserFirstName         AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserFirstName"`
+	LdapAttributeUserLastName          AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserLastName"`
+	LdapAttributeUserDisplayName       AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserDisplayName"`
+	LdapAttributeUserProfilePicture    AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeUserProfilePicture"`
+	LdapAttributeGroupMember           AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeGroupMember"`
+	LdapAttributeGroupUniqueIdentifier AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeGroupUniqueIdentifier"`
+	LdapAttributeGroupName             AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAttributeGroupName"`
+	LdapAdminGroupName                 AppConfigValue `json:"ldapAdminGroupName"`
+	LdapSoftDeleteUsers                AppConfigValue `json:"ldapSoftDeleteUsers" type:"bool"`
+}
+
+// AppConfigValue holds a value
+type AppConfigValue string
+
+// IsTrue returns true if the value is a truthy string, such as "true", "t", "yes", "1", etc.
+func (a AppConfigValue) IsTrue() bool {
+	return utils.IsTruthy(string(a))
+}
+
+// AsDurationMinutes returns the value as a time.Duration, interpreting the string as a whole number of minutes.
+func (a AppConfigValue) AsDurationMinutes() time.Duration {
+	val, err := strconv.Atoi(string(a))
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	return time.Duration(val) * time.Minute
+}
+
+// String implements fmt.Stringer
+func (a AppConfigValue) String() string {
+	return string(a)
+}
+
+func getDefaultConfig() *AppConfigModel {
+	// Values are the default ones
+	return &AppConfigModel{
+		// General
+		AppName:                   "Pocket ID",
+		SessionDuration:           "60",
+		HomePageURL:               "/settings/account",
+		EmailsVerified:            "false",
+		DisableAnimations:         "false",
+		AllowOwnAccountEdit:       "true",
+		AllowUserSignups:          "disabled",
+		SignupDefaultUserGroupIDs: "[]",
+		SignupDefaultCustomClaims: "[]",
+		AccentColor:               "default",
+		// Email
+		RequireUserEmail:              "true",
+		SmtpHost:                      "",
+		SmtpPort:                      "",
+		SmtpFrom:                      "",
+		SmtpUser:                      "",
+		SmtpPassword:                  "",
+		SmtpTls:                       "none",
+		SmtpSkipCertVerify:            "false",
+		EmailLoginNotificationEnabled: "false",
+		EmailOneTimeAccessAsUnauthenticatedEnabled: "false",
+		EmailOneTimeAccessAsAdminEnabled:           "false",
+		EmailApiKeyExpirationEnabled:               "false",
+		EmailVerificationEnabled:                   "false",
+		// LDAP
+		LdapEnabled:                        "false",
+		LdapUrl:                            "",
+		LdapBindDn:                         "",
+		LdapBindPassword:                   "",
+		LdapBase:                           "",
+		LdapUserSearchFilter:               "(objectClass=person)",
+		LdapUserGroupSearchFilter:          "(objectClass=groupOfNames)",
+		LdapSkipCertVerify:                 "false",
+		LdapAttributeUserUniqueIdentifier:  "",
+		LdapAttributeUserUsername:          "",
+		LdapAttributeUserEmail:             "",
+		LdapAttributeUserFirstName:         "",
+		LdapAttributeUserLastName:          "",
+		LdapAttributeUserDisplayName:       "cn",
+		LdapAttributeUserProfilePicture:    "",
+		LdapAttributeGroupMember:           "member",
+		LdapAttributeGroupUniqueIdentifier: "",
+		LdapAttributeGroupName:             "",
+		LdapAdminGroupName:                 "",
+		LdapSoftDeleteUsers:                "true",
+	}
+}
+
+// fromLegacyConfig builds an appConfigModel from a legacy config map
+// The map's keys correspond to the "json" tags on appConfigModel, and all values are strings that are cast to each field's type
+// Keys that are missing (or have an empty value) retain the default value
+func fromLegacyConfig(legacyCfg map[string]string) (*AppConfigModel, error) {
+	// Start from the default configuration, then override with the values from the legacy config
+	dest := getDefaultConfig()
+
+	rt := reflect.ValueOf(dest).Elem().Type()
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(dest).Elem()
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		field := rt.Field(i)
+
+		// Get the value of the json tag, taking only what's before the comma
+		key, _, _ := strings.Cut(field.Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+
+		// Look up the value in the legacy config
+		// If the key is missing or the value is empty, we keep the default value
+		value, ok := legacyCfg[key]
+		if !ok || value == "" {
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// Cast the string value to the field's type
+		fv := rv.Field(i)
+		switch fv.Kind() { //nolint:exhaustive
+		case reflect.String:
+			fv.SetString(value)
+		case reflect.Bool:
+			fv.SetBool(utils.IsTruthy(value))
+		case reflect.Int, reflect.Int8, reflect.Int16, reflect.Int32, reflect.Int64:
+			n, err := strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse integer value for key '%s': %w", key, err)
+			}
+			fv.SetInt(n)
+		default:
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unsupported field type '%s' for key '%s'", fv.Kind(), key)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return dest, nil
+}
+
+// Replace updates every configuration property with the values from the input DTO
+// An empty string value resets the corresponding property to its default value
+func (m *AppConfigModel) Replace(input dto.AppConfigUpdateDto) error {
+	// Collect the values from the input DTO into a map, keyed by the "json" tag
+	inRv := reflect.ValueOf(input)
+	inRt := inRv.Type()
+	values := make(map[string]string, inRt.NumField())
+	for i := range inRt.NumField() {
+		// Get the value of the json tag, taking only what's before the comma
+		key, _, _ := strings.Cut(inRt.Field(i).Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+		values[key] = inRv.Field(i).String()
+	}
+
+	// Iterate through all the properties, setting each one from the input
+	// Properties that are missing from the input or have an empty value are reset to their default
+	defaults := reflect.ValueOf(getDefaultConfig()).Elem()
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(m).Elem()
+	rt := rv.Type()
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		key, _, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+
+		value, ok := values[key]
+		if !ok || value == "" {
+			value = defaults.Field(i).String()
+		}
+
+		rv.Field(i).SetString(value)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+// Update sets configuration properties from the provided key-value pairs
+// Keys correspond to the "json" tags on the model
+// An empty string value resets the property to its default value
+func (m *AppConfigModel) Update(keysAndValues ...string) error {
+	// Count of keysAndValues must be even
+	if len(keysAndValues)%2 != 0 {
+		return errors.New("invalid number of arguments received")
+	}
+
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(m).Elem()
+	rt := rv.Type()
+	defaults := reflect.ValueOf(getDefaultConfig()).Elem()
+
+	// Iterate through the key-value pairs
+	// (Note the += 2, as we are iterating through key-value pairs)
+	for i := 1; i < len(keysAndValues); i += 2 {
+		key := keysAndValues[i-1]
+		value := keysAndValues[i]
+
+		// Find the field in the struct whose "json" tag matches
+		fieldIdx := -1
+		for j := range rt.NumField() {
+			// Separate the key (before the comma) from any optional attributes after
+			tagValue, _, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(j).Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+			if tagValue == key {
+				fieldIdx = j
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		if fieldIdx < 0 {
+			return AppConfigKeyNotFoundError{field: key}
+		}
+
+		// An empty string means we use the default value for the property
+		if value == "" {
+			value = defaults.Field(fieldIdx).String()
+		}
+
+		rv.Field(fieldIdx).SetString(value)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+type AppConfigKeyNotFoundError struct {
+	field string
+}
+
+func (e AppConfigKeyNotFoundError) Error() string {
+	return "cannot find config key '" + e.field + "'"
+}
+
+func (e AppConfigKeyNotFoundError) Is(target error) bool {
+	// Ignore the field property when checking if an error is of the type AppConfigKeyNotFoundError
+	_, ok := errors.AsType[*AppConfigKeyNotFoundError](target)
+	return ok
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/model_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/model_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"reflect"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+)
+
+// dtoWithMarkerValues returns a DTO where every field is set to a unique, non-empty marker derived from its "json" key, so we can assert each value lands in the right place.
+func dtoWithMarkerValues() dto.AppConfigUpdateDto {
+	var input dto.AppConfigUpdateDto
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(&input).Elem()
+	rt := rv.Type()
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		key, _, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+		rv.Field(i).SetString("marker-" + key)
+	}
+	return input
+}
+
+func TestAppConfigModel_Replace(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("populates every property from the DTO", func(t *testing.T) {
+		input := dtoWithMarkerValues()
+
+		var m AppConfigModel
+		err := m.Replace(input)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Each model property must hold the marker built from its own "json" key.
+		// This also asserts that the model and the DTO share the same set of keys.
+		rv := reflect.ValueOf(&m).Elem()
+		rt := rv.Type()
+		for i := range rt.NumField() {
+			key, _, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+			assert.Equalf(t, "marker-"+key, rv.Field(i).String(), "property %s (key %q)", rt.Field(i).Name, key)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("empty values fall back to their default", func(t *testing.T) {
+		defaults := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		// Start from all-markers, then blank out a few properties whose default is non-empty
+		input := dtoWithMarkerValues()
+		input.AppName = ""
+		input.SessionDuration = ""
+		input.SmtpTls = ""
+		input.LdapUserSearchFilter = ""
+
+		var m AppConfigModel
+		err := m.Replace(input)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Blanked properties are reset to their default
+		assert.Equal(t, defaults.AppName, m.AppName)
+		assert.Equal(t, defaults.SessionDuration, m.SessionDuration)
+		assert.Equal(t, defaults.SmtpTls, m.SmtpTls)
+		assert.Equal(t, defaults.LdapUserSearchFilter, m.LdapUserSearchFilter)
+
+		// A property that was provided keeps the provided value
+		assert.Equal(t, "marker-homePageUrl", m.HomePageURL)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("an empty DTO resets every property to its default", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// Pre-populate with junk to prove Replace overwrites existing state
+		m := AppConfigModel{
+			AppName:     "Custom Name",
+			LdapEnabled: "true",
+			SmtpHost:    "smtp.example.com",
+		}
+
+		err := m.Replace(dto.AppConfigUpdateDto{})
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, *getDefaultConfig(), m)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("provided values overwrite existing non-default values", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+		m.AppName = "Old Name"
+		m.LdapEnabled = "true"
+
+		input := dto.AppConfigUpdateDto{}
+		input.AppName = "New Name"
+
+		err := m.Replace(input)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Explicitly provided value wins
+		assert.Equal(t, "New Name", m.AppName)
+		// Everything else in the DTO was empty, so it is reset to the default
+		assert.Equal(t, getDefaultConfig().LdapEnabled, m.LdapEnabled)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("stores raw string values without type coercion", func(t *testing.T) {
+		input := dto.AppConfigUpdateDto{}
+		input.SessionDuration = "120" // int-tagged property
+		input.LdapEnabled = "true"    // bool-tagged property
+
+		var m AppConfigModel
+		err := m.Replace(input)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, "120", m.SessionDuration)
+		assert.Equal(t, "true", m.LdapEnabled)
+	})
+}
+
+func TestAppConfigModel_Update(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("updates a single property", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		err := m.Update("appName", "My App")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, "My App", m.AppName)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("updates multiple properties and leaves others untouched", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		err := m.Update("appName", "My App", "homePageUrl", "/home", "ldapEnabled", "true")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, "My App", m.AppName)
+		assert.Equal(t, "/home", m.HomePageURL)
+		assert.Equal(t, "true", m.LdapEnabled)
+		// A property that was not part of the update keeps its previous value
+		assert.Equal(t, getDefaultConfig().SessionDuration, m.SessionDuration)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("an empty value resets the property to its default", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+		m.SmtpTls = "tls"         // default is "none"
+		m.SessionDuration = "120" // default is "60"
+
+		err := m.Update("smtpTls", "", "sessionDuration", "")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, getDefaultConfig().SmtpTls, m.SmtpTls)
+		assert.Equal(t, getDefaultConfig().SessionDuration, m.SessionDuration)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("stores raw string values without type coercion", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		err := m.Update("sessionDuration", "120", "disableAnimations", "true")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, "120", m.SessionDuration)
+		assert.Equal(t, "true", m.DisableAnimations)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("later value wins for a repeated key", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		err := m.Update("appName", "First", "appName", "Second")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, "Second", m.AppName)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("no arguments is a no-op", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+		before := *m
+
+		err := m.Update()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		assert.Equal(t, before, *m)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("an odd number of arguments returns an error", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+		before := *m
+
+		err := m.Update("appName")
+		require.Error(t, err)
+		assert.EqualError(t, err, "invalid number of arguments received")
+
+		// The config must not have been modified
+		assert.Equal(t, before, *m)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("an unknown key returns AppConfigKeyNotFoundError", func(t *testing.T) {
+		m := getDefaultConfig()
+
+		err := m.Update("thisKeyDoesNotExist", "value")
+		require.Error(t, err)
+		assert.EqualError(t, err, "cannot find config key 'thisKeyDoesNotExist'")
+
+		notFound, ok := errors.AsType[AppConfigKeyNotFoundError](err)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+		assert.Equal(t, "thisKeyDoesNotExist", notFound.field)
+	})
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/service.go
@@ -0,0 +1,301 @@
+package appconfig
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"os"
+	"reflect"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/actor"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/host/local"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+	"gorm.io/gorm/clause"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/tracing"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+)
+
+type AppConfigService struct {
+	actSvc    *actor.Service
+	envConfig *AppConfigModel
+}
+
+func NewService(ctx context.Context, actors *local.Host, db *gorm.DB) (service *AppConfigService, err error) {
+	service = &AppConfigService{}
+
+	// If the UI config is disabled, we do not need to init the config actor
+	if common.EnvConfig.UiConfigDisabled {
+		service.envConfig, err = service.loadDbConfigFromEnv()
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error loading app config from the env: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		return service, nil
+	}
+
+	// Note: we need to assign to the "err" variable in this method (for tracing), do not inline this into the "if"
+	ctx, span := tracing.Start(ctx, "pocketid.appconfig.init")
+	defer tracing.End(span, err)
+
+	// Load the legacy config if any, which we need to send to the actor as bootstrap data
+	legacyCfg, err := LoadLegacyConfig(ctx, db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error loading legacy config: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Register the AppConfig actor
+	// This is a singleton actor and it's bootstrapped with the legacy config if present
+	bootstrapData := &appConfigActorBootstrap{
+		LegacyConfig: legacyCfg,
+	}
+	err = actors.RegisterSingletonActor(
+		AppConfigActorType, NewAppConfigActor,
+		local.WithBootstrapData(bootstrapData),
+		local.WithIdleTimeout(-1), // Disable idle timeout for this actor
+	)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error registering the %s actor: %w", AppConfigActorType, err)
+	}
+
+	service.actSvc = actors.Service()
+
+	return service, nil
+}
+
+// GetConfig returns the application configuration
+// Important: Treat the object as read-only: do not modify its properties directly!
+func (s *AppConfigService) GetConfig(parentCtx context.Context) (*AppConfigModel, error) {
+	// If the UI config is disabled, only load from the env
+	if common.EnvConfig.UiConfigDisabled {
+		return s.envConfig, nil
+	}
+
+	// Retrieve the config from the actor
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	res, err := s.actSvc.Peek(ctx, AppConfigActorType, actor.SingletonActorID, "get", nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error retrieving config from actor: %w", err)
+	}
+	if res == nil {
+		return nil, errors.New("config actor response was empty")
+	}
+
+	var cfg AppConfigModel
+	err = res.Decode(&cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error decoding config actor response: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return &cfg, nil
+}
+
+func (s *AppConfigService) updateAppConfigUpdateDatabase(ctx context.Context, tx *gorm.DB, dbUpdate *[]model.AppConfigVariable) error {
+	err := tx.
+		WithContext(ctx).
+		Clauses(clause.OnConflict{
+			// Perform an "upsert" if the key already exists, replacing the value
+			Columns:   []clause.Column{{Name: "key"}},
+			DoUpdates: clause.AssignmentColumns([]string{"value"}),
+		}).
+		Create(&dbUpdate).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to update config in database: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s *AppConfigService) UpdateAppConfig(ctx context.Context, input dto.AppConfigUpdateDto) ([]model.AppConfigVariable, error) {
+	if common.EnvConfig.UiConfigDisabled {
+		return nil, &common.UiConfigDisabledError{}
+	}
+
+	// From here onwards, we know we are the only process/goroutine with exclusive access to the config
+	// Re-load the config from the database to be sure we have the correct data
+	cfg, err := s.loadDbConfigInternal(ctx, tx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to reload config from database: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	defaultCfg := getDefaultConfig()
+
+	// Iterate through all the fields to update
+	// We update the in-memory data (in the cfg struct) and collect values to update in the database
+	rt := reflect.ValueOf(input).Type()
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(input)
+	dbUpdate := make([]model.AppConfigVariable, 0, rt.NumField())
+	for field := range rt.Fields() {
+		value := rv.FieldByName(field.Name).String()
+
+		// Get the value of the json tag, taking only what's before the comma
+		key, _, _ := strings.Cut(field.Tag.Get("json"), ",")
+
+		// Update the in-memory config value
+		// If the new value is an empty string, then we set the in-memory value to the default one
+		if value == "" {
+			// Ignore errors here as we know the key exists
+			defaultValue, _ := defaultCfg.FieldByKey(key)
+			err = cfg.UpdateField(key, defaultValue)
+		} else {
+			err = cfg.UpdateField(key, value)
+		}
+
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to update in-memory config for key '%s': %w", key, err)
+		}
+
+		// We always save "value" which can be an empty string
+		dbUpdate = append(dbUpdate, model.AppConfigVariable{
+			Key:   key,
+			Value: value,
+		})
+	}
+
+	// Update the values in the database
+	err = s.updateAppConfigUpdateDatabase(ctx, tx, &dbUpdate)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	// Commit the changes to the DB, then finally save the updated config in the object
+	err = tx.Commit().Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to commit transaction: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	s.dbConfig.Store(cfg)
+
+	// Return the updated config
+	res := cfg.ToAppConfigVariableSlice(true, false)
+	return res, nil
+}
+
+// UpdateAppConfigValues updates the application configuration values in the database.
+func (s *AppConfigService) UpdateAppConfigValues(ctx context.Context, keysAndValues ...string) error {
+	// Count of keysAndValues must be even
+	if len(keysAndValues)%2 != 0 {
+		return errors.New("invalid number of arguments received")
+	}
+
+	if common.EnvConfig.UiConfigDisabled {
+		return &common.UiConfigDisabledError{}
+	}
+
+	// Start the transaction
+	tx, err := s.updateAppConfigStartTransaction(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer tx.Rollback()
+
+	// From here onwards, we know we are the only process/goroutine with exclusive access to the config
+	// Re-load the config from the database to be sure we have the correct data
+	cfg, err := s.loadDbConfigInternal(ctx, tx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to reload config from database: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	defaultCfg := getDefaultDbConfig()
+
+	// Iterate through all the fields to update
+	// We update the in-memory data (in the cfg struct) and collect values to update in the database
+	// (Note the += 2, as we are iterating through key-value pairs)
+	dbUpdate := make([]model.AppConfigVariable, 0, len(keysAndValues)/2)
+	for i := 1; i < len(keysAndValues); i += 2 {
+		key := keysAndValues[i-1]
+		value := keysAndValues[i]
+
+		// Ensure that the field is valid
+		// We do this by grabbing the default value
+		var defaultValue string
+		defaultValue, err := defaultCfg.FieldByKey(key)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("invalid configuration key '%s': %w", key, err)
+		}
+
+		// Update the in-memory config value
+		// If the new value is an empty string, then we set the in-memory value to the default one
+		if value == "" {
+			err = cfg.UpdateField(key, defaultValue)
+		} else {
+			err = cfg.UpdateField(key, value)
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to update in-memory config for key '%s': %w", key, err)
+		}
+
+		// We always save "value" which can be an empty string
+		dbUpdate = append(dbUpdate, model.AppConfigVariable{
+			Key:   key,
+			Value: value,
+		})
+	}
+
+	// Update the values in the database
+	err = s.updateAppConfigUpdateDatabase(ctx, tx, &dbUpdate)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	// Commit the changes to the DB, then finally save the updated config in the object
+	err = tx.Commit().Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to commit transaction: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	s.dbConfig.Store(cfg)
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s *AppConfigService) ListAppConfig(showAll bool) []model.AppConfigVariable {
+	return s.GetDbConfig().ToAppConfigVariableSlice(showAll, true)
+}
+
+func (s *AppConfigService) loadDbConfigFromEnv() (*AppConfigModel, error) {
+	// First, start from the default configuration
+	dest := getDefaultConfig()
+
+	// Iterate through each field
+	rt := reflect.ValueOf(dest).Elem().Type()
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(dest).Elem()
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		field := rt.Field(i)
+
+		// Get the key and internal tag values
+		key, attrs, _ := strings.Cut(field.Tag.Get("key"), ",")
+		envVarName := utils.CamelCaseToScreamingSnakeCase(key)
+
+		// Set the value if it's set
+		value, ok := os.LookupEnv(envVarName)
+		if ok {
+			rv.Field(i).Set(reflect.ValueOf(value))
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// If it's sensitive, we also allow reading from file
+		if attrs == "sensitive" {
+			fileName := os.Getenv(envVarName + "_FILE")
+			if fileName != "" {
+				// #nosec G703 - Value is provided by admin
+				b, err := os.ReadFile(fileName)
+				if err != nil {
+					return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to read secret '%s' from file '%s': %w", envVarName, fileName, err)
+				}
+
+				rv.Field(i).Set(reflect.ValueOf(string(b)))
+				continue
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return dest, nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/appconfig/testing_unit.go
+++ b/backend/internal/appconfig/testing_unit.go
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+//go:build unit
+
+// This file contains utils for unit tests and it's only built when the "unit" tag is set
+package appconfig
+
+// NewTestAppConfigService is a function used by tests to create AppConfigService objects with pre-defined configuration values
+func NewTestAppConfigService(config *AppConfigModel) *AppConfigService {
+	if config == nil {
+		// If there's no config, set the default one
+		config = getDefaultConfig()
+	}
+
+	service := &AppConfigService{
+		envConfig: config,
+	}
+
+	return service
+}
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/actors_bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/actors_bootstrap.go
@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+package bootstrap
+
+import (
+	"database/sql"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"log/slog"
+	"net"
+	"net/http"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/ratelimit"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/components/postgres"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/host/local"
+	"github.com/jackc/pgx/v5/pgxpool"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/job"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/storage"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/crypto"
+)
+
+type NewActorsOpts struct {
+	SQLite   *sql.DB
+	Postgres *pgxpool.Pool
+
+	EnvConfig   *common.EnvConfigSchema
+	InstanceID  string
+	HttpClient  *http.Client
+	DB          *gorm.DB
+	FileStorage storage.FileStorage
+}
+
+func NewActors(o NewActorsOpts) (*local.Host, map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService, error) {
+	log := slog.Default()
+
+	// Derive a PSK from the global encryption key
+	// The runtime PSK derives the cluster CA used for host-to-host mTLS
+	psk, err := o.getPSK()
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to derive PSK: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Options for the host
+	opts := []local.HostOption{
+		local.WithAddress(net.JoinHostPort(o.EnvConfig.ActorsHost, o.EnvConfig.ActorsPort)),
+		local.WithLogger(log.With("scope", "actor-host")),
+		local.WithRuntimePSKs(psk),
+		local.WithShutdownGracePeriod(10 * time.Second),
+	}
+
+	// Add the database connection
+	providerOpt, err := o.getProvider()
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	opts = append(opts, providerOpt)
+
+	// Create a new actor host
+	h, err := local.NewHost(opts...)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create actor host: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Add all cron jobs
+	err = o.registerCronJobs(h)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	// Add the rate limiters
+	rateLimiters, err := o.registerRateLimiters(h)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	// Bind a service for each rate limiter so the middleware can invoke them
+	rateLimitServices := make(map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService, len(rateLimiters))
+	for name, rl := range rateLimiters {
+		rateLimitServices[name] = rl.Service(h.Service())
+	}
+
+	return h, rateLimitServices, nil
+}
+
+// Derive a PSK from the global encryption key
+func (o *NewActorsOpts) getPSK() ([]byte, error) {
+	// This is tied to the instance ID of the Pocket ID deployment/cluster
+	// Note: changing the key derivation or the seed is a breaking change
+	return crypto.DeriveKey(o.EnvConfig.EncryptionKey, "pocketid/actors-psk/"+o.InstanceID)
+}
+
+func (o *NewActorsOpts) getProvider() (local.HostOption, error) {
+	switch {
+	case o.Postgres != nil && o.SQLite != nil:
+		return nil, errors.New("cannot have both Postgres and SQLite connections")
+	case o.Postgres != nil:
+		return local.WithPostgresProvider(postgres.PostgresProviderOptions{
+			DB: o.Postgres,
+		}), nil
+	case o.SQLite != nil:
+		return local.WithSQLiteProvider(local.SQLiteProviderOptions{
+			DB: o.SQLite,
+		}), nil
+	default:
+		return nil, errors.New("one of Postgres and SQLite must be set")
+	}
+}
+
+func (o *NewActorsOpts) registerCronJobs(host *local.Host) (err error) {
+	// In test mode, we do not register anything
+	if common.EnvConfig.AppEnv == "test" {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	// Register the analytics job
+	analyticsJob, err := job.GetAnalyticsJob(o.HttpClient, o.InstanceID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get analytics cron job: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// This could be nil if analytics are disabled
+	if analyticsJob != nil {
+		err = host.RegisterBuiltInActor(analyticsJob)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("error registering built-in actor for analytics job: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Register the file cleanup jobs
+	fileCleanupJobs, err := job.GetFileCleanupJobs(o.DB, o.FileStorage)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get file cleanup cron jobs: %w", err)
+	}
+	for _, j := range fileCleanupJobs {
+		err = host.RegisterBuiltInActor(j)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("error registering built-in actor for cleanup job: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+// registerRateLimiters creates a built-in rate-limit actor for each middleware policy and returns both the created actors (keyed by policy name) and the host options to register them
+// Unlike cron jobs, rate limiters keep no durable state, so they are registered in every environment
+func (o *NewActorsOpts) registerRateLimiters(host *local.Host) (actors map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimit, err error) {
+	policies := middleware.RateLimitPolicies()
+	actors = make(map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimit, len(policies))
+	for _, p := range policies {
+		rl, err := ratelimit.New(
+			p.Name,
+			ratelimit.WithRate(p.Rate),
+			ratelimit.WithPer(p.Per),
+			ratelimit.WithBurst(p.Burst),
+		)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error creating rate limiter %q: %w", p.Name, err)
+		}
+		actors[p.Name] = rl
+
+		err = host.RegisterBuiltInActor(rl)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error registering built-in actor for rate limiter '%s': %w", p.Name, err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return actors, nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/actors_bootstrap_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/actors_bootstrap_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package bootstrap
+
+import (
+	"encoding/hex"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+)
+
+func TestNewActorsOptsGetPSKUsesStableValue(t *testing.T) {
+	opts := NewActorsOpts{
+		EnvConfig: &common.EnvConfigSchema{
+			EncryptionKey: []byte("test-encryption-key"),
+		},
+		// Constant value for this test
+		InstanceID: "ee05c3eb-8129-47a6-a1c7-849998b6f876",
+	}
+
+	expectedHex := "db09067fa194c3731bf77b6415a1c5d903f03d4557605ba3236b31f6eddfc8d7"
+	expected, err := hex.DecodeString(expectedHex)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	actual, err := opts.getPSK()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equalf(t, expected, actual, "actual result: %s", actual)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/bootstrap.go
@@ -8,59 +8,105 @@ import (
 	"time"

 	_ "github.com/golang-migrate/migrate/v4/source/file"
+
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/host/local"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/go-kit/servicerunner"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/job"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/storage"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 )

 func Bootstrap(ctx context.Context) error {
-	var shutdownFns []utils.Service
-	defer func() { //nolint:contextcheck
-		// Invoke all shutdown functions on exit
-		shutdownCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 5*time.Second)
-		defer cancel()
-		if err := utils.NewServiceRunner(shutdownFns...).Run(shutdownCtx); err != nil {
-			slog.Error("Error during graceful shutdown", "error", err)
-		}
-	}()
+	// List of services to run
+	services := make([]servicerunner.Service, 0, 3)
+	shutdowns := &shutdownManager{
+		fns: make([]servicerunner.Service, 0, 4),
+	}

 	// Initialize the observability stack, including the logger, distributed tracing, and metrics
-	shutdownFns, httpClient, err := initObservability(ctx, common.EnvConfig.MetricsEnabled, common.EnvConfig.TracingEnabled)
+	shutdownFns, httpClient, err := initObservability(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize OpenTelemetry: %w", err)
 	}
+	shutdowns.Add(shutdownFns...)
+
 	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Pocket ID is starting")

-	db, err := NewDatabase()
+	// Init database
+	db, pg, err := NewDatabase(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize database: %w", err)
 	}
+	if pg != nil {
+		defer func() {
+			// Close the database connection pool only after the shutdown functions have run: some of them (e.g. releasing the application lock) still need to query the database.
+			pg.Close()
+		}()
+	}

+	// Load the instance ID
+	// This is stored in the "kv" table, and generated on first startup
+	instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(ctx, db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize instance ID: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Init storage
 	fileStorage, err := InitStorage(ctx, db)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize file storage (backend: %s): %w", common.EnvConfig.FileBackend, err)
 	}

+	// Init application images
 	imageExtensions, err := initApplicationImages(ctx, fileStorage)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize application images: %w", err)
 	}

+	// Init the scheduler
 	scheduler, err := job.NewScheduler()
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create job scheduler: %w", err)
 	}

+	// Init the actors
+	// The actor host is created and started before the services, so services can depend on it once it's ready
+	actorsOpts := NewActorsOpts{
+		Postgres: pg,
+
+		EnvConfig:   &common.EnvConfig,
+		InstanceID:  instanceID,
+		HttpClient:  httpClient,
+		DB:          db,
+		FileStorage: fileStorage,
+	}
+	if pg == nil {
+		actorsOpts.SQLite, err = db.DB()
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to get *sql.DB connection from Gorm: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+	actors, rateLimitServices, err := NewActors(actorsOpts)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize actors: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Run the actor host as a background service and get a "ready" signal that other services can wait on
+	actorsRun, actorsReady := actorsRunServiceFn(actors)
+	services = append(services, actorsRun)
+
 	// Create all services
-	svc, err := initServices(ctx, db, httpClient, imageExtensions, fileStorage, scheduler)
+	svc, err := initServices(ctx, db, instanceID, actors, httpClient, imageExtensions, fileStorage, scheduler)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize services: %w", err)
 	}
+	services = append(services, svc.appLockService.RunRenewal)

+	// Acquire the lock from the app lock service
 	waitUntil, err := svc.appLockService.Acquire(ctx, false)
 	if errors.Is(err, service.ErrLockUnavailable) {
 		return errors.New("it appears that there's already one instance of Pocket ID running; running multiple replicas of Pocket ID is currently not supported")
@@ -74,43 +120,78 @@ func Bootstrap(ctx context.Context) error {
 	case <-time.After(time.Until(waitUntil)):
 	}

-	shutdownFn := func(shutdownCtx context.Context) error {
+	shutdowns.Add(func(shutdownCtx context.Context) error {
 		sErr := svc.appLockService.Release(shutdownCtx)
 		if sErr != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("failed to release application lock: %w", sErr)
 		}
 		return nil
-	}
-	shutdownFns = append(shutdownFns, shutdownFn)
+	})

-	// Register scheduled jobs
-	err = registerScheduledJobs(ctx, db, svc, httpClient, scheduler)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register scheduled jobs: %w", err)
+	// Register scheduled jobs, only in non-test mode
+	if common.EnvConfig.AppEnv != "test" {
+		err = registerScheduledJobs(ctx, db, svc, scheduler)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to register scheduled jobs: %w", err)
+		}
+		services = append(services, scheduler.Run)
 	}

 	// Init the router
-	router, err := initRouter(db, svc)
+	// The rate-limit middleware invokes the actor host with each request's own context, so the setup context is intentionally not threaded through the router
+	//nolint:contextcheck
+	router, err := initRouter(db, svc, rateLimitServices)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize router: %w", err)
 	}

+	// The router must wait on the actor host being ready, since the rate-limit middleware invokes actors
+	services = append(services, actorsReady.Await(router))
+
 	// Run all background services
 	// This call blocks until the context is canceled
-	services := []utils.Service{svc.appLockService.RunRenewal, router}
-
-	if common.EnvConfig.AppEnv != "test" {
-		services = append(services, scheduler.Run)
-	}
-
-	err = utils.NewServiceRunner(services...).Run(ctx)
+	err = servicerunner.NewServiceRunner(services...).Run(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to run services: %w", err)
 	}

+	// Run all shutdown functions
+	shutdowns.Run(ctx)
+
 	return nil
 }

+// actorsRunServiceFn wraps the actor host's Run method in a background service and returns a "ready" signal that other services can wait on
+func actorsRunServiceFn(actors *local.Host) (servicerunner.Service, *servicerunner.Ready) {
+	actorsReady := servicerunner.NewReady()
+	fn := func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		runErrCh := make(chan error, 1)
+		go func() {
+			runErrCh <- actors.Run(ctx)
+		}()
+
+		// Wait for the right signal
+		select {
+		case <-actors.Ready():
+			// Actor host is ready, signal actorsReady
+			actorsReady.Signal()
+		case runErr := <-runErrCh:
+			// Run returned with an error
+			return runErr
+		case <-ctx.Done():
+			// Context canceled
+			return ctx.Err()
+		}
+
+		// Now the actor host is running
+		// This goroutine must stay up until the actor host returns
+		// Here, context cancellation will surface through this channel too
+		return <-runErrCh
+	}
+
+	return fn, actorsReady
+}
+
 func InitStorage(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) (fileStorage storage.FileStorage, err error) {
 	switch common.EnvConfig.FileBackend {
 	case storage.TypeFileSystem:
@@ -138,3 +219,30 @@ func InitStorage(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) (fileStorage storage.FileStor

 	return fileStorage, nil
 }
+
+type shutdownManager struct {
+	fns []servicerunner.Service
+}
+
+func (s *shutdownManager) Add(fns ...servicerunner.Service) {
+	for _, fn := range fns {
+		if fn == nil {
+			continue
+		}
+
+		s.fns = append(s.fns, fn)
+	}
+}
+
+func (s *shutdownManager) Run(ctx context.Context) {
+	// Cleanup functions are one-shot and must each run to completion independently, so we set WaitAll to true
+	sr := servicerunner.NewServiceRunner(s.fns...)
+	sr.WaitAll = true
+
+	shutdownCtx, shutdownCancel := context.WithTimeout(context.WithoutCancel(ctx), 5*time.Second)
+	defer shutdownCancel()
+	err := sr.Run(shutdownCtx)
+	if err != nil {
+		slog.ErrorContext(ctx, "Error shutting down services", slog.Any("error", err))
+	}
+}
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/db_bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/db_bootstrap.go
@@ -1,74 +1,76 @@
 package bootstrap

 import (
+	"context"
 	"database/sql"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
-	"net/url"
-	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
 	"time"

-	"github.com/glebarez/sqlite"
 	_ "github.com/golang-migrate/migrate/v4/source/github"
+	sqlitekit "github.com/italypaleale/go-sql-utils/sqlite"
+	"github.com/jackc/pgx/v5/pgxpool"
+	"github.com/jackc/pgx/v5/stdlib"
+	"github.com/libtnb/sqlite"
 	slogGorm "github.com/orandin/slog-gorm"
 	"gorm.io/driver/postgres"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"
 	gormLogger "gorm.io/gorm/logger"
+	tracingGorm "gorm.io/plugin/opentelemetry/tracing"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 	sqliteutil "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/sqlite"
 )

-func NewDatabase() (db *gorm.DB, err error) {
-	db, err = ConnectDatabase()
+func NewDatabase(ctx context.Context) (db *gorm.DB, pg *pgxpool.Pool, err error) {
+	db, pg, err = ConnectDatabase(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to connect to database: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to connect to database: %w", err)
 	}
 	sqlDb, err := db.DB()
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to get sql.DB: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to get sql.DB: %w", err)
 	}

 	// Run migrations
-	err = utils.MigrateDatabase(sqlDb)
+	err = utils.MigrateDatabase(ctx, sqlDb)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to run migrations: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to run migrations: %w", err)
 	}

-	return db, nil
+	return db, pg, nil
 }

-func ConnectDatabase() (db *gorm.DB, err error) {
-	var (
-		dialector               gorm.Dialector
-		sqliteNetworkFilesystem bool
-	)
+//nolint:gocognit
+func ConnectDatabase(ctx context.Context) (db *gorm.DB, pg *pgxpool.Pool, err error) {
+	var dialector gorm.Dialector

 	// Choose the correct database provider
 	var onConnFn func(conn *sql.DB)
 	switch common.EnvConfig.DbProvider {
 	case common.DbProviderSqlite:
 		if common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString == "" {
-			return nil, errors.New("missing required env var 'DB_CONNECTION_STRING' for SQLite database")
+			return nil, nil, errors.New("missing required env var 'DB_CONNECTION_STRING' for SQLite database")
 		}

 		sqliteutil.RegisterSqliteFunctions()

-		connString, dbPath, isMemoryDB, err := parseSqliteConnectionString(common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString)
+		connString, dbPath, isMemoryDB, err := sqlitekit.ParseConnectionString(common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString, slog.Default())
 		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
+			return nil, nil, err
 		}

 		if !isMemoryDB {
-			if err := ensureSqliteDatabaseDir(dbPath); err != nil {
-				return nil, err
+			err = sqlitekit.EnsureDatabaseDir(dbPath)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, err
 			}

-			sqliteNetworkFilesystem, err = utils.IsNetworkedFileSystem(filepath.Dir(dbPath))
+			var sqliteNetworkFilesystem bool
+			sqliteNetworkFilesystem, err = sqlitekit.IsNetworkedFileSystem(filepath.Dir(dbPath))
 			if err != nil {
 				// Log the error only
 				slog.Warn("Failed to detect filesystem type for the SQLite database directory", slog.String("path", filepath.Dir(dbPath)), slog.Any("error", err))
@@ -78,9 +80,9 @@ func ConnectDatabase() (db *gorm.DB, err error) {
 		}

 		// Before we connect, also make sure that there's a temporary folder for SQLite to write its data
-		err = ensureSqliteTempDir(filepath.Dir(dbPath))
+		err = sqlitekit.EnsureTempDir(filepath.Dir(dbPath), slog.Default())
 		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
+			return nil, nil, err
 		}

 		if isMemoryDB {
@@ -94,13 +96,33 @@ func ConnectDatabase() (db *gorm.DB, err error) {
 		dialector = sqlite.Open(connString)
 	case common.DbProviderPostgres:
 		if common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString == "" {
-			return nil, errors.New("missing required env var 'DB_CONNECTION_STRING' for Postgres database")
+			return nil, nil, errors.New("missing required env var 'DB_CONNECTION_STRING' for Postgres database")
 		}
-		dialector = postgres.Open(common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString)
+
+		// We need a pgxpool object for francis, so we open this as a pgxpool...
+		pg, err = pgxpool.New(ctx, common.EnvConfig.DbConnectionString)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create Postgres pool: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		// ...test it with a ping...
+		pingCtx, pingCancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 10*time.Second)
+		defer pingCancel()
+		err = pg.Ping(pingCtx)
+		if err != nil {
+			pg.Close()
+			return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to ping Postgres database: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		// ...then create the dialector by adapting it to *sql.DB
+		dialector = postgres.New(postgres.Config{
+			Conn: stdlib.OpenDBFromPool(pg),
+		})
 	default:
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("unsupported database provider: %s", common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("unsupported database provider: %s", common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)
 	}

+	// Try connecting up to 3 times
 	for i := 1; i <= 3; i++ {
 		db, err = gorm.Open(dialector, &gorm.Config{
 			TranslateError: true,
@@ -109,268 +131,40 @@ func ConnectDatabase() (db *gorm.DB, err error) {
 		if err == nil {
 			slog.Info("Connected to database", slog.String("provider", string(common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)))

+			// Configure tracing and metrics
+			err = db.Use(tracingGorm.NewPlugin())
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to configure tracing for DB: %w", err)
+			}
+
+			// Invoke the onConnFn callback if any
 			if onConnFn != nil {
 				conn, err := db.DB()
 				if err != nil {
-					slog.Warn("Failed to get database connection, will retry in 3s", slog.Int("attempt", i), slog.String("provider", string(common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)), slog.Any("error", err))
-					time.Sleep(3 * time.Second)
+					if pg != nil {
+						pg.Close()
+					}
+					return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to get database connection for onConnFn callback: %w", err)
 				}
+
 				onConnFn(conn)
 			}

-			return db, nil
+			return db, pg, nil
 		}

+		// If we're here, the connection failed
 		slog.Warn("Failed to connect to database, will retry in 3s", slog.Int("attempt", i), slog.String("provider", string(common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)), slog.Any("error", err))
 		time.Sleep(3 * time.Second)
 	}

 	slog.Error("Failed to connect to database after 3 attempts", slog.String("provider", string(common.EnvConfig.DbProvider)), slog.Any("error", err))

-	return nil, err
-}
-
-func parseSqliteConnectionString(connString string) (parsedConnString string, dbPath string, isMemoryDB bool, err error) {
-	if !strings.HasPrefix(connString, "file:") {
-		connString = "file:" + connString
+	if pg != nil {
+		pg.Close()
 	}

-	// Check if we're using an in-memory database
-	isMemoryDB = isSqliteInMemory(connString)
-
-	// Parse the connection string
-	connStringUrl, err := url.Parse(connString)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", false, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse SQLite connection string: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	// Convert options for the old SQLite driver to the new one
-	convertSqlitePragmaArgs(connStringUrl)
-
-	// Add the default and required params
-	err = addSqliteDefaultParameters(connStringUrl, isMemoryDB)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", false, fmt.Errorf("invalid SQLite connection string: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	// Get the absolute path to the database
-	// Here, we know for a fact that the ? is present
-	parsedConnString = connStringUrl.String()
-	idx := strings.IndexRune(parsedConnString, '?')
-	dbPath, err = filepath.Abs(parsedConnString[len("file:"):idx])
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", false, fmt.Errorf("failed to determine absolute path to the database: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	return parsedConnString, dbPath, isMemoryDB, nil
-}
-
-// The official C implementation of SQLite allows some additional properties in the connection string
-// that are not supported in the in the modernc.org/sqlite driver, and which must be passed as PRAGMA args instead.
-// To ensure that people can use similar args as in the C driver, which was also used by Pocket ID
-// previously (via github.com/mattn/go-sqlite3), we are converting some options.
-// Note this function updates connStringUrl.
-func convertSqlitePragmaArgs(connStringUrl *url.URL) {
-	// Reference: https://github.com/mattn/go-sqlite3?tab=readme-ov-file#connection-string
-	// This only includes a subset of options, excluding those that are not relevant to us
-	qs := make(url.Values, len(connStringUrl.Query()))
-	for k, v := range connStringUrl.Query() {
-		switch strings.ToLower(k) {
-		case "_auto_vacuum", "_vacuum":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "auto_vacuum("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_busy_timeout", "_timeout":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "busy_timeout("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_case_sensitive_like", "_cslike":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "case_sensitive_like("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_foreign_keys", "_fk":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "foreign_keys("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_locking_mode", "_locking":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "locking_mode("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_secure_delete":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "secure_delete("+v[0]+")")
-		case "_synchronous", "_sync":
-			qs.Add("_pragma", "synchronous("+v[0]+")")
-		default:
-			// Pass other query-string args as-is
-			qs[k] = v
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Update the connStringUrl object
-	connStringUrl.RawQuery = qs.Encode()
-}
-
-// Adds the default (and some required) parameters to the SQLite connection string.
-// Note this function updates connStringUrl.
-func addSqliteDefaultParameters(connStringUrl *url.URL, isMemoryDB bool) error {
-	// This function include code adapted from https://github.com/dapr/components-contrib/blob/v1.14.6/
-	// Copyright (C) 2023 The Dapr Authors
-	// License: Apache2
-	const defaultBusyTimeout = 2500 * time.Millisecond
-
-	// Get the "query string" from the connection string if present
-	qs := connStringUrl.Query()
-	if len(qs) == 0 {
-		qs = make(url.Values, 2)
-	}
-
-	// Check if the database is read-only or immutable
-	isReadOnly := false
-	if len(qs["mode"]) > 0 {
-		// Keep the first value only
-		qs["mode"] = []string{
-			strings.ToLower(qs["mode"][0]),
-		}
-		if qs["mode"][0] == "ro" {
-			isReadOnly = true
-		}
-	}
-	if len(qs["immutable"]) > 0 {
-		// Keep the first value only
-		qs["immutable"] = []string{
-			strings.ToLower(qs["immutable"][0]),
-		}
-		if qs["immutable"][0] == "1" {
-			isReadOnly = true
-		}
-	}
-
-	// We do not want to override a _txlock if set, but we'll show a warning if it's not "immediate"
-	if len(qs["_txlock"]) > 0 {
-		// Keep the first value only
-		qs["_txlock"] = []string{
-			strings.ToLower(qs["_txlock"][0]),
-		}
-		if qs["_txlock"][0] != "immediate" {
-			slog.Warn("SQLite connection is being created with a _txlock different from the recommended value 'immediate'")
-		}
-	} else {
-		qs["_txlock"] = []string{"immediate"}
-	}
-
-	// Add pragma values
-	var hasBusyTimeout, hasJournalMode bool
-	if len(qs["_pragma"]) == 0 {
-		qs["_pragma"] = make([]string, 0, 3)
-	} else {
-		for _, p := range qs["_pragma"] {
-			p = strings.ToLower(p)
-			switch {
-			case strings.HasPrefix(p, "busy_timeout"):
-				hasBusyTimeout = true
-			case strings.HasPrefix(p, "journal_mode"):
-				hasJournalMode = true
-			case strings.HasPrefix(p, "foreign_keys"):
-				return errors.New("found forbidden option '_pragma=foreign_keys' in the connection string")
-			}
-		}
-	}
-	if !hasBusyTimeout {
-		qs["_pragma"] = append(qs["_pragma"], fmt.Sprintf("busy_timeout(%d)", defaultBusyTimeout.Milliseconds()))
-	}
-	if !hasJournalMode {
-		switch {
-		case isMemoryDB:
-			// For in-memory databases, set the journal to MEMORY, the only allowed option besides OFF (which would make transactions ineffective)
-			qs["_pragma"] = append(qs["_pragma"], "journal_mode(MEMORY)")
-		case isReadOnly:
-			// Set the journaling mode to "DELETE" (the default) if the database is read-only
-			qs["_pragma"] = append(qs["_pragma"], "journal_mode(DELETE)")
-		default:
-			// Enable WAL
-			qs["_pragma"] = append(qs["_pragma"], "journal_mode(WAL)")
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Forcefully enable foreign keys
-	qs["_pragma"] = append(qs["_pragma"], "foreign_keys(1)")
-
-	// Update the connStringUrl object
-	connStringUrl.RawQuery = qs.Encode()
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-// isSqliteInMemory returns true if the connection string is for an in-memory database.
-func isSqliteInMemory(connString string) bool {
-	lc := strings.ToLower(connString)
-
-	// First way to define an in-memory database is to use ":memory:" or "file::memory:" as connection string
-	if strings.HasPrefix(lc, ":memory:") || strings.HasPrefix(lc, "file::memory:") {
-		return true
-	}
-
-	// Another way is to pass "mode=memory" in the "query string"
-	idx := strings.IndexRune(lc, '?')
-	if idx < 0 {
-		return false
-	}
-	qs, _ := url.ParseQuery(lc[(idx + 1):])
-
-	return len(qs["mode"]) > 0 && qs["mode"][0] == "memory"
-}
-
-// ensureSqliteDatabaseDir creates the parent directory for the SQLite database file if it doesn't exist yet
-func ensureSqliteDatabaseDir(dbPath string) error {
-	dir := filepath.Dir(dbPath)
-
-	info, err := os.Stat(dir)
-	switch {
-	case err == nil:
-		if !info.IsDir() {
-			return fmt.Errorf("SQLite database directory '%s' is not a directory", dir)
-		}
-		return nil
-	case os.IsNotExist(err):
-		if err := os.MkdirAll(dir, 0700); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("failed to create SQLite database directory '%s': %w", dir, err)
-		}
-		return nil
-	default:
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to check SQLite database directory '%s': %w", dir, err)
-	}
-}
-
-// ensureSqliteTempDir ensures that SQLite has a directory where it can write temporary files if needed
-// The default directory may not be writable when using a container with a read-only root file system
-// See: https://www.sqlite.org/tempfiles.html
-func ensureSqliteTempDir(dbPath string) error {
-	// Per docs, SQLite tries these folders in order (excluding those that aren't applicable to us):
-	//
-	// - The SQLITE_TMPDIR environment variable
-	// - The TMPDIR environment variable
-	// - /var/tmp
-	// - /usr/tmp
-	// - /tmp
-	//
-	// Source: https://www.sqlite.org/tempfiles.html#temporary_file_storage_locations
-	//
-	// First, let's check if SQLITE_TMPDIR or TMPDIR are set, in which case we trust the user has taken care of the problem already
-	if os.Getenv("SQLITE_TMPDIR") != "" || os.Getenv("TMPDIR") != "" {
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	// Now, let's check if /var/tmp, /usr/tmp, or /tmp exist and are writable
-	for _, dir := range []string{"/var/tmp", "/usr/tmp", "/tmp"} {
-		ok, err := utils.IsWritableDir(dir)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("failed to check if %s is writable: %w", dir, err)
-		}
-		if ok {
-			// We found a folder that's writable
-			return nil
-		}
-	}
-
-	// If we're here, there's no temporary directory that's writable (not unusual for containers with a read-only root file system), so we set SQLITE_TMPDIR to the folder where the SQLite database is set
-	err := os.Setenv("SQLITE_TMPDIR", dbPath)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to set SQLITE_TMPDIR environmental variable: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	slog.Debug("Set SQLITE_TMPDIR to the database directory", "path", dbPath)
-
-	return nil
+	return nil, nil, err
 }

 func getGormLogger() gormLogger.Interface {
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/db_bootstrap_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/db_bootstrap_test.go
@@ -1,349 +0,0 @@
-package bootstrap
-
-import (
-	"net/url"
-	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
-	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
-)
-
-func TestIsSqliteInMemory(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		name     string
-		connStr  string
-		expected bool
-	}{
-		{
-			name:     "memory database with :memory:",
-			connStr:  ":memory:",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "memory database with file::memory:",
-			connStr:  "file::memory:",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "memory database with :MEMORY: (uppercase)",
-			connStr:  ":MEMORY:",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "memory database with FILE::MEMORY: (uppercase)",
-			connStr:  "FILE::MEMORY:",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "memory database with mixed case",
-			connStr:  ":Memory:",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "has mode=memory",
-			connStr:  "file:data?mode=memory",
-			expected: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "file database",
-			connStr:  "data.db",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "file database with path",
-			connStr:  "/path/to/data.db",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "file database with file: prefix",
-			connStr:  "file:data.db",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "empty string",
-			connStr:  "",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "string containing memory but not at start",
-			connStr:  "data:memory:.db",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "has mode=ro",
-			connStr:  "file:data?mode=ro",
-			expected: false,
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, tt := range tests {
-		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			result := isSqliteInMemory(tt.connStr)
-			assert.Equal(t, tt.expected, result)
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func TestEnsureSqliteDatabaseDir(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Run("creates missing directory", func(t *testing.T) {
-		tempDir := t.TempDir()
-		dbPath := filepath.Join(tempDir, "nested", "pocket-id.db")
-
-		err := ensureSqliteDatabaseDir(dbPath)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-
-		info, err := os.Stat(filepath.Dir(dbPath))
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		assert.True(t, info.IsDir())
-	})
-
-	t.Run("fails when parent is file", func(t *testing.T) {
-		tempDir := t.TempDir()
-		filePath := filepath.Join(tempDir, "file.txt")
-		require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filePath, []byte("test"), 0o600))
-
-		err := ensureSqliteDatabaseDir(filepath.Join(filePath, "data.db"))
-		require.Error(t, err)
-	})
-}
-
-func TestConvertSqlitePragmaArgs(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		name     string
-		input    string
-		expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			name:     "basic file path",
-			input:    "file:test.db",
-			expected: "file:test.db",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _busy_timeout to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_busy_timeout=5000",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%285000%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _timeout to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_timeout=5000",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%285000%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _foreign_keys to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_foreign_keys=1",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _fk to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_fk=1",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _synchronous to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_synchronous=NORMAL",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=synchronous%28NORMAL%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _sync to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_sync=NORMAL",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=synchronous%28NORMAL%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _auto_vacuum to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_auto_vacuum=FULL",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=auto_vacuum%28FULL%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _vacuum to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_vacuum=FULL",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=auto_vacuum%28FULL%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _case_sensitive_like to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_case_sensitive_like=1",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=case_sensitive_like%281%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _cslike to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_cslike=1",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=case_sensitive_like%281%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _locking_mode to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_locking_mode=EXCLUSIVE",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=locking_mode%28EXCLUSIVE%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _locking to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_locking=EXCLUSIVE",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=locking_mode%28EXCLUSIVE%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "converts _secure_delete to pragma",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_secure_delete=1",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=secure_delete%281%29",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "preserves unrecognized parameters",
-			input:    "file:test.db?mode=rw&cache=shared",
-			expected: "file:test.db?cache=shared&mode=rw",
-		},
-		{
-			name:     "handles multiple parameters",
-			input:    "file:test.db?_fk=1&mode=rw&_timeout=5000",
-			expected: "file:test.db?_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=busy_timeout%285000%29&mode=rw",
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, tt := range tests {
-		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			resultURL, _ := url.Parse(tt.input)
-			convertSqlitePragmaArgs(resultURL)
-
-			// Parse both URLs to compare components independently
-			expectedURL, err := url.Parse(tt.expected)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			// Compare scheme and path components
-			compareQueryStrings(t, expectedURL, resultURL)
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func TestAddSqliteDefaultParameters(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		name        string
-		input       string
-		isMemoryDB  bool
-		expected    string
-		expectError bool
-	}{
-		{
-			name:       "basic file database",
-			input:      "file:test.db",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_txlock=immediate",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "in-memory database",
-			input:      "file::memory:",
-			isMemoryDB: true,
-			expected:   "file::memory:?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28MEMORY%29&_txlock=immediate",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "read-only database with mode=ro",
-			input:      "file:test.db?mode=ro",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29&_txlock=immediate&mode=ro",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "immutable database",
-			input:      "file:test.db?immutable=1",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29&_txlock=immediate&immutable=1",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with existing _txlock",
-			input:      "file:test.db?_txlock=deferred",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_txlock=deferred",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with existing busy_timeout pragma",
-			input:      "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%285000%29",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%285000%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_txlock=immediate",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with existing journal_mode pragma",
-			input:      "file:test.db?_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29&_txlock=immediate",
-		},
-		{
-			name:        "database with forbidden foreign_keys pragma",
-			input:       "file:test.db?_pragma=foreign_keys%280%29",
-			isMemoryDB:  false,
-			expectError: true,
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with multiple existing pragmas",
-			input:      "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%283000%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28TRUNCATE%29&_pragma=synchronous%28NORMAL%29",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%283000%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28TRUNCATE%29&_pragma=synchronous%28NORMAL%29&_txlock=immediate",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with mode=rw (not read-only)",
-			input:      "file:test.db?mode=rw",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_txlock=immediate&mode=rw",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with immutable=0 (not immutable)",
-			input:      "file:test.db?immutable=0",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_txlock=immediate&immutable=0",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with mixed case mode=RO",
-			input:      "file:test.db?mode=RO",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29&_txlock=immediate&mode=ro",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "database with mixed case immutable=1",
-			input:      "file:test.db?immutable=1",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28DELETE%29&_txlock=immediate&immutable=1",
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "complex database configuration",
-			input:      "file:test.db?cache=shared&mode=rwc&_txlock=immediate&_pragma=synchronous%28FULL%29",
-			isMemoryDB: false,
-			expected:   "file:test.db?_pragma=busy_timeout%282500%29&_pragma=foreign_keys%281%29&_pragma=journal_mode%28WAL%29&_pragma=synchronous%28FULL%29&_txlock=immediate&cache=shared&mode=rwc",
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, tt := range tests {
-		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			resultURL, err := url.Parse(tt.input)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			err = addSqliteDefaultParameters(resultURL, tt.isMemoryDB)
-
-			if tt.expectError {
-				require.Error(t, err)
-				return
-			}
-
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			expectedURL, err := url.Parse(tt.expected)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			compareQueryStrings(t, expectedURL, resultURL)
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func compareQueryStrings(t *testing.T, expectedURL *url.URL, resultURL *url.URL) {
-	t.Helper()
-
-	// Compare scheme and path components
-	assert.Equal(t, expectedURL.Scheme, resultURL.Scheme)
-	assert.Equal(t, expectedURL.Path, resultURL.Path)
-
-	// Compare query parameters regardless of order
-	expectedQuery := expectedURL.Query()
-	resultQuery := resultURL.Query()
-
-	assert.Len(t, expectedQuery, len(resultQuery))
-
-	for key, expectedValues := range expectedQuery {
-		resultValues, ok := resultQuery[key]
-		_ = assert.True(t, ok) &&
-			assert.ElementsMatch(t, expectedValues, resultValues)
-	}
-}
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/observability_boostrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/observability_boostrap.go
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ import (
 	"time"

 	sloggin "github.com/gin-contrib/slog"
-
+	"github.com/italypaleale/go-kit/servicerunner"
 	"github.com/lmittmann/tint"
 	"github.com/mattn/go-isatty"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/bridges/otelslog"
@@ -17,17 +17,14 @@ import (
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel"
 	globallog "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/log/global"
-	metricnoop "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric/noop"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/propagation"
 	sdklog "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/log"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/metric"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/resource"
 	sdktrace "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/trace"
 	semconv "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/semconv/v1.30.0"
-	tracenoop "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace/noop"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 )

 func defaultResource() (*resource.Resource, error) {
@@ -40,13 +37,13 @@ func defaultResource() (*resource.Resource, error) {
 	)
 }

-func initObservability(ctx context.Context, metrics, traces bool) (shutdownFns []utils.Service, httpClient *http.Client, err error) {
+func initObservability(ctx context.Context) (shutdownFns []servicerunner.Service, httpClient *http.Client, err error) {
 	resource, err := defaultResource()
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create OpenTelemetry resource: %w", err)
 	}

-	shutdownFns = make([]utils.Service, 0, 2)
+	shutdownFns = make([]servicerunner.Service, 0, 3)

 	httpClient = &http.Client{}
 	defaultTransport, ok := http.DefaultTransport.(*http.Transport)
@@ -57,13 +54,15 @@ func initObservability(ctx context.Context, metrics, traces bool) (shutdownFns [
 	httpClient.Transport = defaultTransport.Clone()

 	// Logging
-	err = initOtelLogging(ctx, resource)
+	loggingShutdownFn, err := initOtelLogging(ctx, resource)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, err
+	} else if loggingShutdownFn != nil {
+		shutdownFns = append(shutdownFns, loggingShutdownFn)
 	}

 	// Tracing
-	tracingShutdownFn, err := initOtelTracing(ctx, traces, resource, httpClient)
+	tracingShutdownFn, err := initOtelTracing(ctx, resource, httpClient)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, err
 	} else if tracingShutdownFn != nil {
@@ -71,7 +70,7 @@ func initObservability(ctx context.Context, metrics, traces bool) (shutdownFns [
 	}

 	// Metrics
-	metricsShutdownFn, err := initOtelMetrics(ctx, metrics, resource)
+	metricsShutdownFn, err := initOtelMetrics(ctx, resource)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, err
 	} else if metricsShutdownFn != nil {
@@ -81,19 +80,19 @@ func initObservability(ctx context.Context, metrics, traces bool) (shutdownFns [
 	return shutdownFns, httpClient, nil
 }

-func initOtelLogging(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource) error {
+func initOtelLogging(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource) (shutdownFn servicerunner.Service, err error) {
 	// If the env var OTEL_LOGS_EXPORTER is empty, we set it to "none", for autoexport to work
 	if os.Getenv("OTEL_LOGS_EXPORTER") == "" {
 		os.Setenv("OTEL_LOGS_EXPORTER", "none")
 	}
 	exp, err := autoexport.NewLogExporter(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize OpenTelemetry log exporter: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to initialize OpenTelemetry log exporter: %w", err)
 	}

 	level, _ := sloggin.ParseLevel(common.EnvConfig.LogLevel)

-	// Create the handler
+	// Create the console handler
 	var handler slog.Handler
 	if common.EnvConfig.LogJSON {
 		handler = slog.NewJSONHandler(os.Stdout, &slog.HandlerOptions{
@@ -107,21 +106,35 @@ func initOtelLogging(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource) error {
 		})
 	}

-	// Create the logger provider
-	provider := sdklog.NewLoggerProvider(
-		sdklog.WithProcessor(
-			sdklog.NewBatchProcessor(exp),
-		),
-		sdklog.WithResource(resource),
-	)
+	// When log export is enabled, also send logs to OpenTelemetry through a batch processor.
+	// When it's disabled (the exporter is a no-op), we skip the OTel handler entirely so we don't convert and buffer every log record just to drop it.
+	if !autoexport.IsNoneLogExporter(exp) {
+		// Create the logger provider
+		provider := sdklog.NewLoggerProvider(
+			sdklog.WithProcessor(
+				sdklog.NewBatchProcessor(exp),
+			),
+			sdklog.WithResource(resource),
+		)

-	// Set the logger provider globally
-	globallog.SetLoggerProvider(provider)
+		// Set the logger provider globally
+		globallog.SetLoggerProvider(provider)

-	handler = slog.NewMultiHandler(
-		handler,
-		otelslog.NewHandler(common.Name, otelslog.WithLoggerProvider(provider)),
-	)
+		handler = slog.NewMultiHandler(
+			handler,
+			otelslog.NewHandler(common.Name, otelslog.WithLoggerProvider(provider)),
+		)
+
+		shutdownFn = func(shutdownCtx context.Context) error { //nolint:contextcheck
+			lpCtx, lpCancel := context.WithTimeout(shutdownCtx, 10*time.Second)
+			defer lpCancel()
+			shutdownErr := provider.Shutdown(lpCtx)
+			if shutdownErr != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("failed to gracefully shut down logs exporter: %w", shutdownErr)
+			}
+			return nil
+		}
+	}

 	// Set the default slog to send logs to OTel and add the app name
 	log := slog.New(handler).
@@ -129,13 +142,13 @@ func initOtelLogging(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource) error {
 		With(slog.String("version", common.Version))
 	slog.SetDefault(log)

-	return nil
+	return shutdownFn, nil
 }

-func initOtelTracing(ctx context.Context, traces bool, resource *resource.Resource, httpClient *http.Client) (shutdownFn utils.Service, err error) {
-	if !traces {
-		otel.SetTracerProvider(tracenoop.NewTracerProvider())
-		return nil, nil
+func initOtelTracing(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource, httpClient *http.Client) (shutdownFn servicerunner.Service, err error) {
+	// If the env var OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER is empty, we set it to "none"
+	if os.Getenv("OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER") == "" {
+		os.Setenv("OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER", "none")
 	}

 	tr, err := autoexport.NewSpanExporter(ctx)
@@ -171,10 +184,10 @@ func initOtelTracing(ctx context.Context, traces bool, resource *resource.Resour
 	return shutdownFn, nil
 }

-func initOtelMetrics(ctx context.Context, metrics bool, resource *resource.Resource) (shutdownFn utils.Service, err error) {
-	if !metrics {
-		otel.SetMeterProvider(metricnoop.NewMeterProvider())
-		return nil, nil
+func initOtelMetrics(ctx context.Context, resource *resource.Resource) (shutdownFn servicerunner.Service, err error) {
+	// If the env var OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER is empty, we set it to "none"
+	if os.Getenv("OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER") == "" {
+		os.Setenv("OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER", "none")
 	}

 	mr, err := autoexport.NewMetricReader(ctx)
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/router_bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/router_bootstrap.go
@@ -17,27 +17,28 @@ import (
 	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
 	sloggin "github.com/gin-contrib/slog"
 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/ratelimit"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/go-kit/servicerunner"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/github.com/gin-gonic/gin/otelgin"
-	"golang.org/x/time/rate"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/frontend"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/controller"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/tracing"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/systemd"
 )

 // This is used to register additional controllers for tests
 var registerTestControllers []func(apiGroup *gin.RouterGroup, db *gorm.DB, svc *services)

-func initRouter(db *gorm.DB, svc *services) (utils.Service, error) {
+func initRouter(db *gorm.DB, svc *services, rateLimitServices map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService) (servicerunner.Service, error) {
 	r, err := initEngine()
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	err = registerRoutes(r, db, svc)
+	err = registerRoutes(r, db, svc, rateLimitServices)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -67,7 +68,10 @@ func initEngine() (*gin.Engine, error) {

 	r := gin.New()
 	initLogger(r)
-	configureEngine(r)
+	err := configureEngine(r)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 	registerGlobalMiddleware(r)

 	return r, nil
@@ -85,17 +89,36 @@ func setGinMode() {
 	}
 }

-func configureEngine(r *gin.Engine) {
-	if !common.EnvConfig.TrustProxy {
-		_ = r.SetTrustedProxies(nil)
+func configureEngine(r *gin.Engine) error {
+	err := r.SetTrustedProxies(common.EnvConfig.TrustProxy)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to configure trusted proxies: %w", err)
 	}

 	if common.EnvConfig.TrustedPlatform != "" {
 		r.TrustedPlatform = common.EnvConfig.TrustedPlatform
 	}

-	if common.EnvConfig.TracingEnabled {
-		r.Use(otelgin.Middleware(common.Name))
+	r.Use(otelgin.Middleware(
+		common.Name,
+		otelgin.WithFilter(shouldTraceRequest)),
+	)
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+// shouldTraceRequest reports whether an incoming request should be traced.
+// It traces only requests handled by real backend routes (the API, the OIDC/OAuth endpoints, and the well-known documents).
+// Everything else falls through to the frontend NoRoute handler, which serves the SPA shell and static assets; tracing those would produce noisy, unparented spans named just "GET" with an empty http.route.
+func shouldTraceRequest(r *http.Request) bool {
+	p := r.URL.Path
+	switch {
+	case strings.HasPrefix(p, "/api/"),
+		strings.HasPrefix(p, "/.well-known/"),
+		p == "/authorize":
+		return true
+	default:
+		return false
 	}
 }

@@ -107,9 +130,9 @@ func registerGlobalMiddleware(r *gin.Engine) {
 	r.Use(middleware.NewErrorHandlerMiddleware().Add())
 }

-func registerRoutes(r *gin.Engine, db *gorm.DB, svc *services) error {
+func registerRoutes(r *gin.Engine, db *gorm.DB, svc *services, rateLimitServices map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService) error {

-	err := frontend.RegisterFrontend(r, svc.oidcService)
+	err := frontend.RegisterFrontend(r)
 	if errors.Is(err, frontend.ErrFrontendNotIncluded) {
 		slog.Warn("Frontend is not included in the build. Skipping frontend registration.")
 	} else if err != nil {
@@ -117,32 +140,53 @@ func registerRoutes(r *gin.Engine, db *gorm.DB, svc *services) error {
 	}

 	// Initialize middleware for specific routes
-	authMiddleware := middleware.NewAuthMiddleware(svc.apiKeyService, svc.userService, svc.jwtService)
+	authMiddleware := middleware.NewAuthMiddleware(svc.apiKeyModule, svc.userService, svc.jwtService)
 	fileSizeLimitMiddleware := middleware.NewFileSizeLimitMiddleware()
-	apiRateLimitMiddleware := middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware().Add(rate.Every(time.Second), 100)
+	rateLimitMiddleware := middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware(rateLimitServices)
+	apiRateLimitMiddleware := rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitAPI)

 	apiGroup := r.Group("/api", apiRateLimitMiddleware)
-	controller.NewApiKeyController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.apiKeyService)
-	controller.NewWebauthnController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware(), svc.webauthnService, svc.appConfigService)
-	controller.NewOidcController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, fileSizeLimitMiddleware, svc.oidcService, svc.jwtService)
-	controller.NewUserController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware(), svc.userService, svc.oneTimeAccessService, svc.webauthnService, svc.appConfigService)
+	baseGroup := r.Group("/", apiRateLimitMiddleware)
+
+	svc.apiKeyModule.RegisterRoutes(apiGroup,
+		authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(),
+		authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithApiKeyAuthDisabled().Add(),
+	)
+	svc.webauthnModule.RegisterRoutes(apiGroup,
+		authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(),
+		rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitWebauthnLogin),
+		rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitWebauthnReauthenticate),
+	)
+	controller.NewOidcController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, fileSizeLimitMiddleware, svc.oidcService)
+	controller.NewUserController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, rateLimitMiddleware, svc.userService, svc.oneTimeAccessService, svc.webauthnModule, svc.appConfigService)
 	controller.NewAppConfigController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.appConfigService, svc.emailService, svc.ldapService)
 	controller.NewAppImagesController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.appImagesService)
 	controller.NewAuditLogController(apiGroup, svc.auditLogService, authMiddleware)
 	controller.NewUserGroupController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.userGroupService)
+	svc.apiModule.RegisterRoutes(apiGroup, authMiddleware.Add())
 	controller.NewCustomClaimController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.customClaimService)
 	controller.NewVersionController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.versionService)
 	controller.NewScimController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, svc.scimService)
-	controller.NewUserSignupController(apiGroup, authMiddleware, middleware.NewRateLimitMiddleware(), svc.userSignUpService, svc.appConfigService)
+	svc.userSignUpModule.RegisterRoutes(apiGroup,
+		authMiddleware.Add(),
+		rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitSignup),
+	)
+
+	optionalBrowserAuth := authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithSuccessOptional().WithApiKeyAuthDisabled().Add()
+	browserAuth := authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithApiKeyAuthDisabled().Add()
+	svc.oidcModule.RegisterRoutes(baseGroup, apiGroup, optionalBrowserAuth, browserAuth)

 	registerTestRoutes(apiGroup, db, svc)

-	baseGroup := r.Group("/", apiRateLimitMiddleware)
 	controller.NewWellKnownController(baseGroup, svc.jwtService)

 	// These are not rate-limited.
 	controller.NewHealthzController(r)

+	// Receives OTLP trace payloads from the browser SPA (POST /internal/telemetry/traces) and forwards them to the collector, when trace export is enabled.
+	// Outside /api, so it's unauthenticated and not traced, but it is rate-limited.
+	tracing.NewTelemetryController(r, rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitInternal))
+
 	return nil
 }

--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/scheduler_bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/scheduler_bootstrap.go
@@ -3,14 +3,13 @@ package bootstrap
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
-	"net/http"

 	"gorm.io/gorm"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/job"
 )

-func registerScheduledJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, svc *services, httpClient *http.Client, scheduler *job.Scheduler) error {
+func registerScheduledJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, svc *services, scheduler *job.Scheduler) error {
 	err := scheduler.RegisterLdapJobs(ctx, svc.ldapService, svc.appConfigService)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register LDAP jobs in scheduler: %w", err)
@@ -23,18 +22,10 @@ func registerScheduledJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, svc *services, http
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register DB cleanup jobs in scheduler: %w", err)
 	}
-	err = scheduler.RegisterFileCleanupJobs(ctx, db, svc.fileStorage)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register file cleanup jobs in scheduler: %w", err)
-	}
-	err = scheduler.RegisterApiKeyExpiryJob(ctx, svc.apiKeyService, svc.appConfigService)
+	err = scheduler.RegisterApiKeyExpiryJob(ctx, svc.apiKeyModule, svc.appConfigService, svc.emailService)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register API key expiration jobs in scheduler: %w", err)
 	}
-	err = scheduler.RegisterAnalyticsJob(ctx, svc.appConfigService, httpClient)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register analytics job in scheduler: %w", err)
-	}
 	err = scheduler.RegisterScimJobs(ctx, svc.scimService)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register SCIM scheduler job: %w", err)
--- a/backend/internal/bootstrap/services_bootstrap.go
+++ b/backend/internal/bootstrap/services_bootstrap.go
@@ -5,40 +5,61 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"net/http"

-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/job"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/host/local"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/api"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/apikey"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/job"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/storage"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/usersignup"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/webauthn"
 )

 type services struct {
-	appConfigService     *service.AppConfigService
+	appConfigService     *appconfig.AppConfigService
 	appImagesService     *service.AppImagesService
 	emailService         *service.EmailService
 	geoLiteService       *service.GeoLiteService
 	auditLogService      *service.AuditLogService
 	jwtService           *service.JwtService
-	webauthnService      *service.WebAuthnService
 	scimService          *service.ScimService
 	userService          *service.UserService
 	customClaimService   *service.CustomClaimService
 	oidcService          *service.OidcService
 	userGroupService     *service.UserGroupService
 	ldapService          *service.LdapService
-	apiKeyService        *service.ApiKeyService
 	versionService       *service.VersionService
 	fileStorage          storage.FileStorage
 	appLockService       *service.AppLockService
-	userSignUpService    *service.UserSignUpService
 	oneTimeAccessService *service.OneTimeAccessService
+
+	apiKeyModule     *apikey.Module
+	oidcModule       *oidc.Module
+	webauthnModule   *webauthn.Module
+	userSignUpModule *usersignup.Module
+	apiModule        *api.Module
 }

 // Initializes all services
-func initServices(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, httpClient *http.Client, imageExtensions map[string]string, fileStorage storage.FileStorage, scheduler *job.Scheduler) (svc *services, err error) {
+func initServices(
+	ctx context.Context,
+	db *gorm.DB,
+	instanceID string,
+	actors *local.Host,
+	httpClient *http.Client,
+	imageExtensions map[string]string,
+	fileStorage storage.FileStorage,
+	scheduler *job.Scheduler,
+) (svc *services, err error) {
 	svc = &services{}

-	svc.appConfigService, err = service.NewAppConfigService(ctx, db)
+	// Init the app config service
+	svc.appConfigService, err = appconfig.NewService(ctx, actors, db)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create app config service: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -54,20 +75,47 @@ func initServices(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, httpClient *http.Client, ima

 	svc.geoLiteService = service.NewGeoLiteService(httpClient)
 	svc.auditLogService = service.NewAuditLogService(db, svc.appConfigService, svc.emailService, svc.geoLiteService)
-	svc.jwtService, err = service.NewJwtService(ctx, db, svc.appConfigService)
+	svc.jwtService, err = service.NewJwtService(ctx, db, instanceID, svc.appConfigService)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create JWT service: %w", err)
 	}

 	svc.customClaimService = service.NewCustomClaimService(db)
-	svc.webauthnService, err = service.NewWebAuthnService(db, svc.jwtService, svc.auditLogService, svc.appConfigService)
+	svc.webauthnModule, err = webauthn.New(webauthn.Dependencies{
+		DB:        db,
+		AppURL:    common.EnvConfig.AppURL,
+		Signer:    svc.jwtService,
+		AuditLog:  svc.auditLogService,
+		AppConfig: svc.appConfigService,
+	})
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create WebAuthn service: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create WebAuthn module: %w", err)
 	}

 	svc.scimService = service.NewScimService(db, scheduler, httpClient)

-	svc.oidcService, err = service.NewOidcService(ctx, db, svc.jwtService, svc.appConfigService, svc.auditLogService, svc.customClaimService, svc.webauthnService, svc.scimService, httpClient, fileStorage)
+	svc.apiModule = api.New(api.Dependencies{DB: db, Issuer: common.EnvConfig.AppURL})
+
+	svc.oidcModule, err = oidc.New(ctx, oidc.Dependencies{
+		DB:         db,
+		HTTPClient: httpClient,
+		Config: oidc.Config{
+			BaseURL:                   common.EnvConfig.AppURL,
+			TokenBaseURL:              common.EnvConfig.AppURL,
+			Secret:                    common.EnvConfig.EncryptionKey,
+			AllowInsecureCallbackURLs: common.EnvConfig.AllowInsecureCallbackURLs,
+		},
+		Signer:       svc.jwtService,
+		CustomClaims: svc.customClaimService,
+		Reauth:       svc.webauthnModule,
+		AuditLog:     svc.auditLogService,
+		APIAccess:    svc.apiModule,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create OIDC module: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	svc.oidcService, err = service.NewOidcService(db, svc.jwtService, svc.appConfigService, svc.oidcModule.Preview, svc.scimService, httpClient, fileStorage)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create OIDC service: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -76,12 +124,21 @@ func initServices(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, httpClient *http.Client, ima
 	svc.userService = service.NewUserService(db, svc.jwtService, svc.auditLogService, svc.emailService, svc.appConfigService, svc.customClaimService, svc.appImagesService, svc.scimService, fileStorage)
 	svc.ldapService = service.NewLdapService(db, httpClient, svc.appConfigService, svc.userService, svc.userGroupService, fileStorage)

-	svc.apiKeyService, err = service.NewApiKeyService(ctx, db, svc.emailService)
+	svc.apiKeyModule, err = apikey.New(ctx, apikey.Dependencies{
+		DB:           db,
+		StaticApiKey: common.EnvConfig.StaticApiKey,
+	})
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create API key service: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create API key module: %w", err)
 	}

-	svc.userSignUpService = service.NewUserSignupService(db, svc.jwtService, svc.auditLogService, svc.appConfigService, svc.userService)
+	svc.userSignUpModule = usersignup.New(usersignup.Dependencies{
+		DB:          db,
+		Signer:      svc.jwtService,
+		AuditLog:    svc.auditLogService,
+		AppConfig:   svc.appConfigService,
+		UserCreator: svc.userService,
+	})
 	svc.oneTimeAccessService = service.NewOneTimeAccessService(db, svc.userService, svc.jwtService, svc.auditLogService, svc.emailService, svc.appConfigService)

 	svc.versionService = service.NewVersionService(httpClient)
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/encryption_key_rotate.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/encryption_key_rotate.go
@@ -6,14 +6,14 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"os"

-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/bootstrap"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 	jwkutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/jwk"
 )
@@ -30,12 +30,17 @@ func init() {
 		Use:   "encryption-key-rotate",
 		Short: "Re-encrypts data using a new encryption key",
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			db, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase()
+			db, _, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase(cmd.Context())
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}

-			return encryptionKeyRotate(cmd.Context(), flags, db, &common.EnvConfig)
+			instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(cmd.Context(), db)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
+			return encryptionKeyRotate(cmd.Context(), flags, db, instanceID, &common.EnvConfig)
 		},
 	}

@@ -45,7 +50,7 @@ func init() {
 	rootCmd.AddCommand(encryptionKeyRotateCmd)
 }

-func encryptionKeyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags encryptionKeyRotateFlags, db *gorm.DB, envConfig *common.EnvConfigSchema) error {
+func encryptionKeyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags encryptionKeyRotateFlags, db *gorm.DB, instanceID string, envConfig *common.EnvConfigSchema) error {
 	oldKey := envConfig.EncryptionKey
 	newKey := []byte(flags.NewKey)
 	if len(newKey) == 0 {
@@ -67,12 +72,6 @@ func encryptionKeyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags encryptionKeyRotateFlags, db
 		}
 	}

-	appConfigService, err := service.NewAppConfigService(ctx, db)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create app config service: %w", err)
-	}
-	instanceID := appConfigService.GetDbConfig().InstanceID.Value
-
 	// Derive the encryption keys used for the JWK encryption
 	oldKek, err := jwkutils.LoadKeyEncryptionKey(&common.EnvConfigSchema{EncryptionKey: oldKey}, instanceID)
 	if err != nil {
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/encryption_key_rotate_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/encryption_key_rotate_test.go
@@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"

-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	jwkutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/jwk"
 	testingutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
 )
@@ -25,9 +25,8 @@ func TestEncryptionKeyRotate(t *testing.T) {

 	db := testingutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)

-	appConfigService, err := service.NewAppConfigService(t.Context(), db)
+	instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(t.Context(), db)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	instanceID := appConfigService.GetDbConfig().InstanceID.Value

 	oldKek, err := jwkutils.LoadKeyEncryptionKey(envConfig, instanceID)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -61,7 +60,8 @@ func TestEncryptionKeyRotate(t *testing.T) {
 		NewKey: string(newKey),
 		Yes:    true,
 	}
-	require.NoError(t, encryptionKeyRotate(t.Context(), flags, db, envConfig))
+	err = encryptionKeyRotate(t.Context(), flags, db, instanceID, envConfig)
+	require.NoError(t, err)

 	newKek, err := jwkutils.LoadKeyEncryptionKey(&common.EnvConfigSchema{EncryptionKey: newKey}, instanceID)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/export.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/export.go
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ func init() {

 // runExport orchestrates the export flow
 func runExport(ctx context.Context, flags exportFlags) error {
-	db, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase()
+	db, _, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to connect to database: %w", err)
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/import.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/import.go
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ func runImport(ctx context.Context, flags importFlags) error {
 	}
 	defer zipReader.Close()

-	db, err := bootstrap.ConnectDatabase()
+	db, _, err := bootstrap.ConnectDatabase(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/key_rotate.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/key_rotate.go
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ import (

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/bootstrap"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 	jwkutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/jwk"
 )
@@ -31,12 +31,17 @@ func init() {
 		Use:   "key-rotate",
 		Short: "Generates a new token signing key and replaces the current one",
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			db, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase()
+			db, _, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase(cmd.Context())
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}

-			return keyRotate(cmd.Context(), flags, db, &common.EnvConfig)
+			instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(cmd.Context(), db)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
+			return keyRotate(cmd.Context(), flags, db, instanceID, &common.EnvConfig)
 		},
 	}

@@ -47,7 +52,7 @@ func init() {
 	rootCmd.AddCommand(keyRotateCmd)
 }

-func keyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags keyRotateFlags, db *gorm.DB, envConfig *common.EnvConfigSchema) error {
+func keyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags keyRotateFlags, db *gorm.DB, instanceID string, envConfig *common.EnvConfigSchema) error {
 	// Validate the flags
 	switch strings.ToUpper(flags.Alg) {
 	case jwa.RS256().String(), jwa.RS384().String(), jwa.RS512().String(),
@@ -83,14 +88,8 @@ func keyRotate(ctx context.Context, flags keyRotateFlags, db *gorm.DB, envConfig
 		}
 	}

-	// Init the services we need
-	appConfigService, err := service.NewAppConfigService(ctx, db)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create app config service: %w", err)
-	}
-
 	// Get the key provider
-	keyProvider, err := jwkutils.GetKeyProvider(db, envConfig, appConfigService.GetDbConfig().InstanceID.Value)
+	keyProvider, err := jwkutils.GetKeyProvider(db, envConfig, instanceID)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to get key provider: %w", err)
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/key_rotate_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/key_rotate_test.go
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
 	jwkutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/jwk"
 	testingutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
 )
@@ -81,17 +81,16 @@ func testKeyRotateWithDatabaseStorage(t *testing.T, flags keyRotateFlags, wantEr
 	// Create test database
 	db := testingutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)

-	// Initialize app config service and create instance
-	appConfigService, err := service.NewAppConfigService(t.Context(), db)
+	// Load the instance ID
+	instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(t.Context(), db)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	instanceID := appConfigService.GetDbConfig().InstanceID.Value

 	// Get key provider
 	keyProvider, err := jwkutils.GetKeyProvider(db, envConfig, instanceID)
 	require.NoError(t, err)

 	// Run the key rotation
-	err = keyRotate(t.Context(), flags, db, envConfig)
+	err = keyRotate(t.Context(), flags, db, instanceID, envConfig)

 	if wantErr {
 		require.Error(t, err)
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/one_time_access_token.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/one_time_access_token.go
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ var oneTimeAccessTokenCmd = &cobra.Command{
 		userArg := args[0]

 		// Connect to the database
-		db, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase()
+		db, _, err := bootstrap.NewDatabase(cmd.Context())
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
--- a/backend/internal/cmds/root.go
+++ b/backend/internal/cmds/root.go
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ import (
 	"log/slog"
 	"os"

+	"github.com/italypaleale/go-kit/signals"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/bootstrap"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/signals"
 )

 var rootCmd = &cobra.Command{
--- a/backend/internal/common/claims.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/claims.go
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package common
+
+// AuthenticationMethodsClaim is the JWT claim ("amr") used to identify how the user
+// authenticated. It is shared between the session JWTs and the OIDC tokens.
+const AuthenticationMethodsClaim = "amr"
+
+// TokenTypeClaim is the JWT claim ("type") used to identify the type of token.
+const TokenTypeClaim = "type"
--- a/backend/internal/common/env_config.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/env_config.go
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"reflect"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"

 	"github.com/caarlos0/env/v11"
@@ -17,6 +18,7 @@ import (

 type AppEnv string
 type DbProvider string
+type TrustProxyConfig []string

 const (
 	// TracerName should be passed to otel.Tracer, trace.SpanFromContext when creating custom spans.
@@ -38,21 +40,22 @@ const (
 )

 type EnvConfigSchema struct {
-	AppEnv                AppEnv `env:"APP_ENV" options:"toLower"`
-	EncryptionKey         []byte `env:"ENCRYPTION_KEY" options:"file"`
-	AppURL                string `env:"APP_URL" options:"toLower,trimTrailingSlash"`
-	DbProvider            DbProvider
-	DbConnectionString    string `env:"DB_CONNECTION_STRING" options:"file"`
-	TrustProxy            bool   `env:"TRUST_PROXY"`
-	TrustedPlatform       string `env:"TRUSTED_PLATFORM"`
-	AuditLogRetentionDays int    `env:"AUDIT_LOG_RETENTION_DAYS"`
-	AnalyticsDisabled     bool   `env:"ANALYTICS_DISABLED"`
-	AllowDowngrade        bool   `env:"ALLOW_DOWNGRADE"`
-	InternalAppURL        string `env:"INTERNAL_APP_URL"`
-	UiConfigDisabled      bool   `env:"UI_CONFIG_DISABLED"`
-	DisableRateLimiting   bool   `env:"DISABLE_RATE_LIMITING"`
-	VersionCheckDisabled  bool   `env:"VERSION_CHECK_DISABLED"`
-	StaticApiKey          string `env:"STATIC_API_KEY" options:"file"`
+	AppEnv                    AppEnv `env:"APP_ENV" options:"toLower"`
+	EncryptionKey             []byte `env:"ENCRYPTION_KEY" options:"file"`
+	AppURL                    string `env:"APP_URL" options:"toLower,trimTrailingSlash"`
+	DbProvider                DbProvider
+	DbConnectionString        string           `env:"DB_CONNECTION_STRING" options:"file"`
+	TrustProxy                TrustProxyConfig `env:"TRUST_PROXY"`
+	TrustedPlatform           string           `env:"TRUSTED_PLATFORM"`
+	AuditLogRetentionDays     int              `env:"AUDIT_LOG_RETENTION_DAYS"`
+	AnalyticsDisabled         bool             `env:"ANALYTICS_DISABLED"`
+	AllowDowngrade            bool             `env:"ALLOW_DOWNGRADE"`
+	AllowInsecureCallbackURLs bool             `env:"ALLOW_INSECURE_CALLBACK_URLS"`
+	InternalAppURL            string           `env:"INTERNAL_APP_URL"`
+	UiConfigDisabled          bool             `env:"UI_CONFIG_DISABLED"`
+	DisableRateLimiting       bool             `env:"DISABLE_RATE_LIMITING"`
+	VersionCheckDisabled      bool             `env:"VERSION_CHECK_DISABLED"`
+	StaticApiKey              string           `env:"STATIC_API_KEY" options:"file"`

 	FileBackend                     string `env:"FILE_BACKEND" options:"toLower"`
 	UploadPath                      string `env:"UPLOAD_PATH"`
@@ -78,10 +81,11 @@ type EnvConfigSchema struct {
 	GeoLiteDBPath     string `env:"GEOLITE_DB_PATH"`
 	GeoLiteDBUrl      string `env:"GEOLITE_DB_URL"`

-	LogLevel       string `env:"LOG_LEVEL" options:"toLower"`
-	MetricsEnabled bool   `env:"METRICS_ENABLED"`
-	TracingEnabled bool   `env:"TRACING_ENABLED"`
-	LogJSON        bool   `env:"LOG_JSON"`
+	ActorsPort string `env:"ACTORS_PORT"`
+	ActorsHost string `env:"ACTORS_HOST" options:"toLower"`
+
+	LogLevel string `env:"LOG_LEVEL" options:"toLower"`
+	LogJSON  bool   `env:"LOG_JSON"`
 }

 var EnvConfig = defaultConfig()
@@ -96,16 +100,19 @@ func init() {

 func defaultConfig() EnvConfigSchema {
 	return EnvConfigSchema{
-		AppEnv:                AppEnvProduction,
-		LogLevel:              "info",
-		DbProvider:            "sqlite",
-		FileBackend:           "filesystem",
-		AuditLogRetentionDays: 90,
-		AppURL:                AppUrl,
-		Port:                  "1411",
-		Host:                  "0.0.0.0",
-		GeoLiteDBPath:         "data/GeoLite2-City.mmdb",
-		GeoLiteDBUrl:          MaxMindGeoLiteCityUrl,
+		AppEnv:                    AppEnvProduction,
+		LogLevel:                  "info",
+		DbProvider:                "sqlite",
+		FileBackend:               "filesystem",
+		AuditLogRetentionDays:     90,
+		AllowInsecureCallbackURLs: true, // TODO: Default to false in major v3
+		AppURL:                    AppUrl,
+		Port:                      "1411",
+		Host:                      "0.0.0.0",
+		ActorsPort:                "1414",
+		ActorsHost:                "0.0.0.0",
+		GeoLiteDBPath:             "data/GeoLite2-City.mmdb",
+		GeoLiteDBUrl:              MaxMindGeoLiteCityUrl,
 	}
 }

@@ -138,39 +145,53 @@ func ValidateEnvConfig(config *EnvConfigSchema) error {
 		return nil
 	}

-	if _, err := sloggin.ParseLevel(config.LogLevel); err != nil {
+	_, err := sloggin.ParseLevel(config.LogLevel)
+	if err != nil {
 		return errors.New("invalid LOG_LEVEL value. Must be 'debug', 'info', 'warn' or 'error'")
 	}

+	// Check required properties
 	if len(config.EncryptionKey) < 16 {
 		return errors.New("ENCRYPTION_KEY must be at least 16 bytes long")
 	}

-	prepareDbConfig(config)
-
-	if err := validateAppURLs(config); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	if err := validateFileBackend(config); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
 	if config.SystemdSocket && config.UnixSocket != "" {
 		return errors.New("SYSTEMD_SOCKET and UNIX_SOCKET are mutually exclusive")
 	}
-	if err := validateLocalIPv6Ranges(config.LocalIPv6Ranges); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}

 	if config.AuditLogRetentionDays <= 0 {
 		return errors.New("AUDIT_LOG_RETENTION_DAYS must be greater than 0")
 	}

 	if config.StaticApiKey != "" && len(config.StaticApiKey) < 16 {
-		return errors.New("STATIC_API_KEY must be at least 16 characters long")
+		return errors.New("when set, STATIC_API_KEY must be at least 16 characters long")
 	}

-	return validateTLSConfig(config)
+	// Prepare the DB config
+	prepareDbConfig(config)

+	// Validate other required options
+	err = validateAppURLs(config)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	err = validateFileBackend(config)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	err = validateLocalIPv6Ranges(config.LocalIPv6Ranges)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	err = validateTLSConfig(config)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return nil
 }

 func prepareDbConfig(config *EnvConfigSchema) {
@@ -373,3 +394,29 @@ func (a AppEnv) IsProduction() bool {
 func (a AppEnv) IsTest() bool {
 	return a == AppEnvTest
 }
+
+func (config *TrustProxyConfig) UnmarshalText(text []byte) error {
+	value := strings.TrimSpace(string(text))
+
+	// Support boolean values for completely enabling or disabling trust proxy
+	enabled, err := strconv.ParseBool(value)
+	if err == nil {
+		if enabled {
+			*config = TrustProxyConfig{"0.0.0.0/0", "::/0"}
+		} else {
+			*config = nil
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	// Normalize and validate each explicit proxy before the server starts
+	proxies := strings.Split(value, ",")
+	for i, proxy := range proxies {
+		proxy = strings.TrimSpace(proxy)
+		proxies[i] = proxy
+	}
+
+	*config = proxies
+	return nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/common/env_config_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/env_config_test.go
@@ -119,14 +119,36 @@ func TestParseEnvConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Setenv("TRACING_ENABLED", "false")
 		t.Setenv("TRUST_PROXY", "true")
 		t.Setenv("ANALYTICS_DISABLED", "false")
+		t.Setenv("ALLOW_INSECURE_CALLBACK_URLS", "false")

 		err := parseAndValidateEnvConfig(t)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		assert.True(t, EnvConfig.UiConfigDisabled)
-		assert.True(t, EnvConfig.MetricsEnabled)
-		assert.False(t, EnvConfig.TracingEnabled)
-		assert.True(t, EnvConfig.TrustProxy)
+		assert.Equal(t, TrustProxyConfig{"0.0.0.0/0", "::/0"}, EnvConfig.TrustProxy)
 		assert.False(t, EnvConfig.AnalyticsDisabled)
+		assert.False(t, EnvConfig.AllowInsecureCallbackURLs)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("should parse trusted proxy IP addresses and CIDR ranges", func(t *testing.T) {
+		EnvConfig = defaultConfig()
+		t.Setenv("TRUST_PROXY", "10.0.0.0/8, 192.168.1.10, ::1/128")
+
+		err := parseAndValidateEnvConfig(t)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		assert.Equal(t, TrustProxyConfig{"10.0.0.0/8", "192.168.1.10", "::1/128"}, EnvConfig.TrustProxy)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("should disable trusted proxies when set to false", func(t *testing.T) {
+		EnvConfig = defaultConfig()
+		t.Setenv("TRUST_PROXY", "false")
+
+		err := parseAndValidateEnvConfig(t)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		assert.Nil(t, EnvConfig.TrustProxy)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("should allow insecure callback URLs by default", func(t *testing.T) {
+		assert.True(t, defaultConfig().AllowInsecureCallbackURLs)
 	})

 	t.Run("should default audit log retention days to 90", func(t *testing.T) {
@@ -175,6 +197,8 @@ func TestParseEnvConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Setenv("UNIX_SOCKET", "/tmp/app.sock")
 		t.Setenv("MAXMIND_LICENSE_KEY", "test-license")
 		t.Setenv("GEOLITE_DB_PATH", "/custom/geolite.mmdb")
+		t.Setenv("ACTORS_PORT", "9999")
+		t.Setenv("ACTORS_HOST", "LOCALHOST")

 		err := parseAndValidateEnvConfig(t)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -182,6 +206,8 @@ func TestParseEnvConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.Equal(t, "/custom/uploads", EnvConfig.UploadPath)
 		assert.Equal(t, "8080", EnvConfig.Port)
 		assert.Equal(t, "localhost", EnvConfig.Host) // lowercased
+		assert.Equal(t, "9999", EnvConfig.ActorsPort)
+		assert.Equal(t, "localhost", EnvConfig.ActorsHost) // lowercased
 	})

 	t.Run("should normalize file backend and default upload path", func(t *testing.T) {
--- a/backend/internal/common/errors.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/errors.go
@@ -62,43 +62,6 @@ type OidcMissingAuthorizationError struct{}
 func (e OidcMissingAuthorizationError) Error() string       { return "missing authorization" }
 func (e OidcMissingAuthorizationError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusForbidden }

-type OidcGrantTypeNotSupportedError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcGrantTypeNotSupportedError) Error() string       { return "grant type not supported" }
-func (e OidcGrantTypeNotSupportedError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcMissingClientCredentialsError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcMissingClientCredentialsError) Error() string       { return "client id or secret not provided" }
-func (e OidcMissingClientCredentialsError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcClientSecretInvalidError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcClientSecretInvalidError) Error() string       { return "invalid client secret" }
-func (e OidcClientSecretInvalidError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusUnauthorized }
-
-type OidcClientAssertionInvalidError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcClientAssertionInvalidError) Error() string       { return "invalid client assertion" }
-func (e OidcClientAssertionInvalidError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusUnauthorized }
-
-type OidcInvalidAuthorizationCodeError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcInvalidAuthorizationCodeError) Error() string       { return "invalid authorization code" }
-func (e OidcInvalidAuthorizationCodeError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcClientNotFoundError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcClientNotFoundError) Error() string       { return "client not found" }
-func (e OidcClientNotFoundError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusNotFound }
-
-type OidcMissingCallbackURLError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcMissingCallbackURLError) Error() string {
-	return "unable to detect callback url, it might be necessary for an admin to fix this"
-}
-func (e OidcMissingCallbackURLError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type OidcInvalidCallbackURLError struct{}

 func (e OidcInvalidCallbackURLError) Error() string {
@@ -125,11 +88,6 @@ type NotSignedInError struct{}
 func (e NotSignedInError) Error() string       { return "You are not signed in" }
 func (e NotSignedInError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusUnauthorized }

-type MissingAccessToken struct{}
-
-func (e MissingAccessToken) Error() string       { return "Missing access token" }
-func (e MissingAccessToken) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusUnauthorized }
-
 type MissingPermissionError struct{}

 func (e MissingPermissionError) Error() string {
@@ -152,11 +110,6 @@ type UserNotFoundError struct{}
 func (e UserNotFoundError) Error() string       { return "User not found" }
 func (e UserNotFoundError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusNotFound }

-type ClientIdOrSecretNotProvidedError struct{}
-
-func (e ClientIdOrSecretNotProvidedError) Error() string       { return "Client id or secret not provided" }
-func (e ClientIdOrSecretNotProvidedError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type WrongFileTypeError struct {
 	ExpectedFileType string
 }
@@ -189,16 +142,6 @@ func (e DuplicateClaimError) Error() string {
 }
 func (e DuplicateClaimError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }

-type OidcInvalidCodeVerifierError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcInvalidCodeVerifierError) Error() string       { return "Invalid code verifier" }
-func (e OidcInvalidCodeVerifierError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcMissingCodeChallengeError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcMissingCodeChallengeError) Error() string       { return "Missing code challenge" }
-func (e OidcMissingCodeChallengeError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type LdapUserUpdateError struct{}

 func (e LdapUserUpdateError) Error() string       { return "LDAP users can't be updated" }
@@ -221,13 +164,6 @@ func (e OidcClientIdNotMatchingError) Error() string {
 }
 func (e OidcClientIdNotMatchingError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }

-type OidcNoCallbackURLError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcNoCallbackURLError) Error() string {
-	return "No callback URL provided"
-}
-func (e OidcNoCallbackURLError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type UiConfigDisabledError struct{}

 func (e UiConfigDisabledError) Error() string {
@@ -279,21 +215,6 @@ func (e APIKeyAuthNotAllowedError) Error() string {
 }
 func (e APIKeyAuthNotAllowedError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusForbidden }

-type OidcInvalidRefreshTokenError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcInvalidRefreshTokenError) Error() string       { return "refresh token is invalid or expired" }
-func (e OidcInvalidRefreshTokenError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcMissingRefreshTokenError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcMissingRefreshTokenError) Error() string       { return "refresh token is required" }
-func (e OidcMissingRefreshTokenError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcMissingAuthorizationCodeError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcMissingAuthorizationCodeError) Error() string       { return "authorization code is required" }
-func (e OidcMissingAuthorizationCodeError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type UserDisabledError struct{}

 func (e UserDisabledError) Error() string       { return "User account is disabled" }
@@ -315,16 +236,6 @@ type OidcInvalidDeviceCodeError struct{}
 func (e OidcInvalidDeviceCodeError) Error() string       { return "invalid device code" }
 func (e OidcInvalidDeviceCodeError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }

-type OidcSlowDownError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcSlowDownError) Error() string       { return "polling too frequently" }
-func (e OidcSlowDownError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusTooManyRequests }
-
-type OidcAuthorizationPendingError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcAuthorizationPendingError) Error() string       { return "authorization is still pending" }
-func (e OidcAuthorizationPendingError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type ReauthenticationRequiredError struct{}

 func (e ReauthenticationRequiredError) Error() string       { return "reauthentication required" }
@@ -354,22 +265,6 @@ func (e ImageNotFoundError) Error() string { return "Image not found" }

 func (e ImageNotFoundError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusNotFound }

-type OidcPARNotSupportedForPublicClientsError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcPARNotSupportedForPublicClientsError) Error() string {
-	return "pushed authorization requests are not supported for public clients"
-}
-func (e OidcPARNotSupportedForPublicClientsError) HttpStatusCode() int {
-	return http.StatusBadRequest
-}
-
-type OidcInvalidRequestURIError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcInvalidRequestURIError) Error() string {
-	return "invalid or expired request_uri"
-}
-func (e OidcInvalidRequestURIError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
 type OidcPARRequiredError struct{}

 func (e OidcPARRequiredError) Error() string {
@@ -382,35 +277,3 @@ type InvalidEmailVerificationTokenError struct{}
 func (e InvalidEmailVerificationTokenError) Error() string { return "Invalid email verification token" }

 func (e InvalidEmailVerificationTokenError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-// OIDC prompt parameter errors - used for redirect error responses
-
-type OidcLoginRequiredError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcLoginRequiredError) Error() string       { return "login_required" }
-func (e OidcLoginRequiredError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcConsentRequiredError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcConsentRequiredError) Error() string       { return "consent_required" }
-func (e OidcConsentRequiredError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcInteractionRequiredError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcInteractionRequiredError) Error() string       { return "interaction_required" }
-func (e OidcInteractionRequiredError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-
-type OidcInvalidRequestError struct{ description string }
-
-func NewOidcInvalidRequestError(description string) *OidcInvalidRequestError {
-	return &OidcInvalidRequestError{description: description}
-}
-
-func (e OidcInvalidRequestError) Error() string       { return "invalid_request" }
-func (e OidcInvalidRequestError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
-func (e OidcInvalidRequestError) Description() string { return e.description }
-
-type OidcAccountSelectionRequiredError struct{}
-
-func (e OidcAccountSelectionRequiredError) Error() string       { return "account_selection_required" }
-func (e OidcAccountSelectionRequiredError) HttpStatusCode() int { return http.StatusBadRequest }
--- a/backend/internal/common/internal_errors.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/internal_errors.go
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package common
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+)
+
+// ErrUnsupportedActorMethod is returned by custom actors when the invoked method isn't supported
+type ErrUnsupportedActorMethod struct {
+	Method string
+}
+
+func (e ErrUnsupportedActorMethod) Error() string {
+	return "method '" + e.Method + "' unsupported for actor invocation"
+}
+
+func (e ErrUnsupportedActorMethod) Is(target error) bool {
+	// Ignore the field method when checking if an error is of the type ErrUnsupportedActorMethod
+	_, ok := errors.AsType[ErrUnsupportedActorMethod](target)
+	return ok
+}
--- a/backend/internal/common/reserved.go
+++ b/backend/internal/common/reserved.go
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+package common
+
+// StaticApiKeyUserID is the fixed ID of the synthetic admin user that the static API key authenticates as
+// It is excluded from real-user counts such as the initial-admin-setup check
+const StaticApiKeyUserID = "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000"
--- a/backend/internal/controller/api_key_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/api_key_controller.go
@@ -1,156 +0,0 @@
-package controller
-
-import (
-	"net/http"
-
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
-
-	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
-)
-
-// swag init -g cmd/main.go -o ./docs/swagger --parseDependency
-
-// ApiKeyController manages API keys for authenticated users
-type ApiKeyController struct {
-	apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService
-}
-
-// NewApiKeyController creates a new controller for API key management
-// @Summary API key management controller
-// @Description Initializes API endpoints for managing API keys
-// @Tags API Keys
-func NewApiKeyController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService) {
-	uc := &ApiKeyController{apiKeyService: apiKeyService}
-
-	apiKeyGroup := group.Group("/api-keys")
-	{
-		apiKeyGroup.GET("", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.listApiKeysHandler)
-		apiKeyGroup.POST("", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithApiKeyAuthDisabled().Add(), uc.createApiKeyHandler)
-		apiKeyGroup.POST("/:id/renew", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithApiKeyAuthDisabled().Add(), uc.renewApiKeyHandler)
-		apiKeyGroup.DELETE("/:id", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.revokeApiKeyHandler)
-	}
-}
-
-// listApiKeysHandler godoc
-// @Summary List API keys
-// @Description Get a paginated list of API keys belonging to the current user
-// @Tags API Keys
-// @Param pagination[page] query int false "Page number for pagination" default(1)
-// @Param pagination[limit] query int false "Number of items per page" default(20)
-// @Param sort[column] query string false "Column to sort by"
-// @Param sort[direction] query string false "Sort direction (asc or desc)" default("asc")
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.Paginated[dto.ApiKeyDto]
-// @Router /api/api-keys [get]
-func (c *ApiKeyController) listApiKeysHandler(ctx *gin.Context) {
-	listRequestOptions := utils.ParseListRequestOptions(ctx)
-
-	userID := ctx.GetString("userID")
-
-	apiKeys, pagination, err := c.apiKeyService.ListApiKeys(ctx.Request.Context(), userID, listRequestOptions)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var apiKeysDto []dto.ApiKeyDto
-	if err := dto.MapStructList(apiKeys, &apiKeysDto); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	ctx.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.Paginated[dto.ApiKeyDto]{
-		Data:       apiKeysDto,
-		Pagination: pagination,
-	})
-}
-
-// createApiKeyHandler godoc
-// @Summary Create API key
-// @Description Create a new API key for the current user
-// @Tags API Keys
-// @Param api_key body dto.ApiKeyCreateDto true "API key information"
-// @Success 201 {object} dto.ApiKeyResponseDto "Created API key with token"
-// @Router /api/api-keys [post]
-func (c *ApiKeyController) createApiKeyHandler(ctx *gin.Context) {
-	userID := ctx.GetString("userID")
-
-	var input dto.ApiKeyCreateDto
-	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(ctx, &input); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	apiKey, token, err := c.apiKeyService.CreateApiKey(ctx.Request.Context(), userID, input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var apiKeyDto dto.ApiKeyDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(apiKey, &apiKeyDto); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	ctx.JSON(http.StatusCreated, dto.ApiKeyResponseDto{
-		ApiKey: apiKeyDto,
-		Token:  token,
-	})
-}
-
-// renewApiKeyHandler godoc
-// @Summary Renew API key
-// @Description Renew an existing API key by ID
-// @Tags API Keys
-// @Param id path string true "API Key ID"
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.ApiKeyResponseDto "Renewed API key with new token"
-// @Router /api/api-keys/{id}/renew [post]
-func (c *ApiKeyController) renewApiKeyHandler(ctx *gin.Context) {
-	userID := ctx.GetString("userID")
-	apiKeyID := ctx.Param("id")
-
-	var input dto.ApiKeyRenewDto
-	if err := dto.ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(ctx, &input); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	apiKey, token, err := c.apiKeyService.RenewApiKey(ctx.Request.Context(), userID, apiKeyID, input.ExpiresAt.ToTime())
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var apiKeyDto dto.ApiKeyDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(apiKey, &apiKeyDto); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	ctx.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.ApiKeyResponseDto{
-		ApiKey: apiKeyDto,
-		Token:  token,
-	})
-}
-
-// revokeApiKeyHandler godoc
-// @Summary Revoke API key
-// @Description Revoke (delete) an existing API key by ID
-// @Tags API Keys
-// @Param id path string true "API Key ID"
-// @Success 204 "No Content"
-// @Router /api/api-keys/{id} [delete]
-func (c *ApiKeyController) revokeApiKeyHandler(ctx *gin.Context) {
-	userID := ctx.GetString("userID")
-	apiKeyID := ctx.Param("id")
-
-	if err := c.apiKeyService.RevokeApiKey(ctx.Request.Context(), userID, apiKeyID); err != nil {
-		_ = ctx.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	ctx.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
-}
--- a/backend/internal/controller/app_config_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/app_config_controller.go
@@ -5,10 +5,12 @@ import (
 	"strconv"

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/tracing"
 )

 // NewAppConfigController creates a new controller for application configuration endpoints
@@ -18,7 +20,7 @@ import (
 func NewAppConfigController(
 	group *gin.RouterGroup,
 	authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware,
-	appConfigService *service.AppConfigService,
+	appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService,
 	emailService *service.EmailService,
 	ldapService *service.LdapService,
 ) {
@@ -37,7 +39,7 @@ func NewAppConfigController(
 }

 type AppConfigController struct {
-	appConfigService *service.AppConfigService
+	appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService
 	emailService     *service.EmailService
 	ldapService      *service.LdapService
 }
@@ -66,6 +68,13 @@ func (acc *AppConfigController) listAppConfigHandler(c *gin.Context) {
 		Type:  "boolean",
 	})

+	// Manually add tracingEnabled, derived from the OTel environment, so the frontend only exports traces when the backend can forward them to a collector
+	configVariablesDto = append(configVariablesDto, dto.PublicAppConfigVariableDto{
+		Key:   "tracingEnabled",
+		Value: strconv.FormatBool(tracing.FrontendTracingEnabled()),
+		Type:  "boolean",
+	})
+
 	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, configVariablesDto)
 }

--- a/backend/internal/controller/e2etest_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/e2etest_controller.go
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ func NewTestController(group *gin.RouterGroup, testService *service.TestService)
 	testController := &TestController{TestService: testService}

 	group.POST("/test/reset", testController.resetAndSeedHandler)
+	group.POST("/test/accesstoken", testController.signAccessToken)
 	group.POST("/test/refreshtoken", testController.signRefreshToken)

 	group.GET("/externalidp/jwks.json", testController.externalIdPJWKS)
@@ -108,6 +109,27 @@ func (tc *TestController) externalIdPSignToken(c *gin.Context) {
 	c.Writer.WriteString(token)
 }

+func (tc *TestController) signAccessToken(c *gin.Context) {
+	var input struct {
+		UserID   string `json:"user"`
+		ClientID string `json:"client"`
+		Expired  bool   `json:"expired"`
+	}
+	err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	token, err := tc.TestService.SignAccessToken(c.Request.Context(), input.UserID, input.ClientID, input.Expired)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+
+	c.Writer.WriteString(token)
+}
+
 func (tc *TestController) signRefreshToken(c *gin.Context) {
 	var input struct {
 		UserID       string `json:"user"`
@@ -120,7 +142,7 @@ func (tc *TestController) signRefreshToken(c *gin.Context) {
 		return
 	}

-	token, err := tc.TestService.SignRefreshToken(input.UserID, input.ClientID, input.RefreshToken)
+	token, err := tc.TestService.SignRefreshToken(c.Request.Context(), input.UserID, input.ClientID, input.RefreshToken)
 	if err != nil {
 		_ = c.Error(err)
 		return
--- a/backend/internal/controller/oidc_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/oidc_controller.go
@@ -1,11 +1,7 @@
 package controller

 import (
-	"context"
-	"errors"
-	"log/slog"
 	"net/http"
-	"net/url"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
@@ -17,33 +13,17 @@ import (
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/cookie"
 )

 // NewOidcController creates a new controller for OIDC related endpoints
 // @Summary OIDC controller
 // @Description Initializes all OIDC-related API endpoints for authentication and client management
 // @Tags OIDC
-func NewOidcController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, fileSizeLimitMiddleware *middleware.FileSizeLimitMiddleware, oidcService *service.OidcService, jwtService *service.JwtService) {
+func NewOidcController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, fileSizeLimitMiddleware *middleware.FileSizeLimitMiddleware, oidcService *service.OidcService) {
 	oc := &OidcController{
-		oidcService:  oidcService,
-		jwtService:   jwtService,
-		createTokens: oidcService.CreateTokens,
+		oidcService: oidcService,
 	}

-	group.POST("/oidc/authorize", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.authorizeHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/authorize/callback-url", oc.authorizeCallbackURLHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/authorization-required", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.authorizationConfirmationRequiredHandler)
-	group.GET("/oidc/par-request-info", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.parRequestInfoHandler)
-
-	group.POST("/oidc/token", oc.createTokensHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/par", oc.pushedAuthorizationRequestHandler)
-	group.GET("/oidc/userinfo", oc.userInfoHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/userinfo", oc.userInfoHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/end-session", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithSuccessOptional().Add(), oc.EndSessionHandler)
-	group.GET("/oidc/end-session", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().WithSuccessOptional().Add(), oc.EndSessionHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/introspect", oc.introspectTokenHandler)
-
 	group.GET("/oidc/clients", authMiddleware.Add(), oc.listClientsHandler)
 	group.POST("/oidc/clients", authMiddleware.Add(), oc.createClientHandler)
 	group.GET("/oidc/clients/:id", authMiddleware.Add(), oc.getClientHandler)
@@ -60,10 +40,6 @@ func NewOidcController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMi

 	group.GET("/oidc/clients/:id/preview/:userId", authMiddleware.Add(), oc.getClientPreviewHandler)

-	group.POST("/oidc/device/authorize", oc.deviceAuthorizationHandler)
-	group.POST("/oidc/device/verify", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.verifyDeviceCodeHandler)
-	group.GET("/oidc/device/info", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.getDeviceCodeInfoHandler)
-
 	group.GET("/oidc/users/me/authorized-clients", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), oc.listOwnAuthorizedClientsHandler)
 	group.GET("/oidc/users/:id/authorized-clients", authMiddleware.Add(), oc.listAuthorizedClientsHandler)

@@ -76,429 +52,7 @@ func NewOidcController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMi
 }

 type OidcController struct {
-	oidcService  *service.OidcService
-	jwtService   *service.JwtService
-	createTokens func(context.Context, dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error)
-}
-
-// authorizeHandler godoc
-// @Summary Authorize OIDC client
-// @Description Start the OIDC authorization process for a client
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept json
-// @Produce json
-// @Param request body dto.AuthorizeOidcClientRequestDto true "Authorization request parameters"
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.AuthorizeOidcClientResponseDto "Authorization code and callback URL"
-// @Router /api/oidc/authorize [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) authorizeHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	var input dto.AuthorizeOidcClientRequestDto
-	err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	code, callbackURL, err := oc.oidcService.Authorize(
-		c.Request.Context(),
-		input,
-		c.GetString("userID"),
-		c.GetString("authenticationMethod"),
-		c.ClientIP(),
-		c.Request.UserAgent(),
-	)
-	if err != nil {
-		// Check if this is a prompt-related error that should be returned as a redirect error
-		if isOidcPromptError(err) {
-			c.JSON(http.StatusOK, gin.H{
-				"error":            err.Error(),
-				"requiresRedirect": true,
-				"callbackURL":      callbackURL,
-			})
-			return
-		}
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	response := dto.AuthorizeOidcClientResponseDto{
-		Code:        code,
-		CallbackURL: callbackURL,
-		Issuer:      common.EnvConfig.AppURL,
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, response)
-}
-
-// authorizeCallbackURLHandler godoc
-// @Summary Resolve a validated callback URL for an OIDC authorization request
-// @Description Resolves the redirect URI against the client's configured callback URLs without consuming PAR records.
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept json
-// @Produce json
-// @Param request body dto.AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackRequestDto true "Authorization callback parameters"
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackResponseDto "Resolved callback URL"
-// @Router /api/oidc/authorize/callback-url [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) authorizeCallbackURLHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	var input dto.AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackRequestDto
-	if err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	callbackURL, err := oc.oidcService.ResolveAuthorizeCallbackURL(
-		c.Request.Context(),
-		input.ClientID,
-		input.CallbackURL,
-		input.RequestURI,
-	)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackResponseDto{CallbackURL: callbackURL})
-}
-
-// isOidcPromptError checks if an error is a prompt-related OIDC error that should trigger a redirect
-func isOidcPromptError(err error) bool {
-	var loginReq *common.OidcLoginRequiredError
-	var consentReq *common.OidcConsentRequiredError
-	var interactionReq *common.OidcInteractionRequiredError
-	var accountSelectionReq *common.OidcAccountSelectionRequiredError
-
-	return errors.As(err, &loginReq) ||
-		errors.As(err, &consentReq) ||
-		errors.As(err, &interactionReq) ||
-		errors.As(err, &accountSelectionReq)
-}
-
-// authorizationConfirmationRequiredHandler godoc
-// @Summary Check if authorization confirmation is required
-// @Description Check if the user needs to confirm authorization for the client
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept json
-// @Produce json
-// @Param request body dto.AuthorizationRequiredDto true "Authorization check parameters"
-// @Success 200 {object} object "{ \"authorizationRequired\": true/false }"
-// @Router /api/oidc/authorization-required [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) authorizationConfirmationRequiredHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	var input dto.AuthorizationRequiredDto
-	if err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	authorizationRequired, scope, err := oc.oidcService.AuthorizationRequired(c.Request.Context(), input.ClientID, c.GetString("userID"), input.Scope, input.RequestURI)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, gin.H{"authorizationRequired": authorizationRequired, "scope": scope})
-}
-
-// parRequestInfoHandler godoc
-// @Summary Resolve stored authorization request parameters
-// @Description Resolve the parameters of a stored request_uri request so the consent page can render the requested scope and build the final redirect. Does not consume the request.
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Produce json
-// @Param client_id query string true "Client ID"
-// @Param request_uri query string true "Request URI returned from the PAR endpoint"
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.OidcAuthorizeRequestInfoDto "Resolved authorization request parameters"
-// @Router /api/oidc/par-request-info [get]
-func (oc *OidcController) parRequestInfoHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	clientID := c.Query("client_id")
-	requestURI := c.Query("request_uri")
-	if clientID == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.ValidationError{Message: "client_id is required"})
-		return
-	}
-	if requestURI == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.ValidationError{Message: "request_uri is required"})
-		return
-	}
-
-	info, err := oc.oidcService.GetPushedAuthorizationRequest(c.Request.Context(), clientID, requestURI)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var infoDto dto.OidcAuthorizeRequestInfoDto
-	err = dto.MapStruct(info.Parameters, &infoDto)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, infoDto)
-}
-
-// createTokensHandler godoc
-// @Summary Create OIDC tokens
-// @Description Exchange authorization code or refresh token for access tokens
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Produce json
-// @Param client_id formData string false "Client ID (if not using Basic Auth)"
-// @Param client_secret formData string false "Client secret (if not using Basic Auth or client assertions)"
-// @Param code formData string false "Authorization code (required for 'authorization_code' grant)"
-// @Param grant_type formData string true "Grant type ('authorization_code' or 'refresh_token')"
-// @Param code_verifier formData string false "PKCE code verifier (for authorization_code with PKCE)"
-// @Param refresh_token formData string false "Refresh token (required for 'refresh_token' grant)"
-// @Param client_assertion formData string false "Client assertion type (for 'authorization_code' grant when using client assertions)"
-// @Param client_assertion_type formData string false "Client assertion type (for 'authorization_code' grant when using client assertions)"
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.OidcTokenResponseDto "Token response with access_token and optional id_token and refresh_token"
-// @Router /api/oidc/token [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) createTokensHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	// Per RFC-6749, parameters passed to the /token endpoint MUST be passed in the body of the request
-	// Gin's "ShouldBind" by default reads from the query string too, so we need to reset all query string args before invoking ShouldBind
-	c.Request.URL.RawQuery = ""
-
-	var input dto.OidcCreateTokensDto
-	err := c.ShouldBind(&input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Validate that code is provided for authorization_code grant type
-	if input.GrantType == service.GrantTypeAuthorizationCode && input.Code == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.OidcMissingAuthorizationCodeError{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Validate that refresh_token is provided for refresh_token grant type
-	if input.GrantType == service.GrantTypeRefreshToken && input.RefreshToken == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.OidcMissingRefreshTokenError{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Check if the client ID / secret are passed in the Authorization header (RFC 6749)
-	parseBasicAuth(c.Request, &input.ClientSecret, &input.ClientID)
-
-	tokens, err := oc.createTokens(c.Request.Context(), input)
-
-	switch {
-	case errors.Is(err, &common.OidcAuthorizationPendingError{}):
-		c.JSON(http.StatusBadRequest, gin.H{
-			"error": "authorization_pending",
-		})
-		return
-	case errors.Is(err, &common.OidcSlowDownError{}):
-		c.JSON(http.StatusBadRequest, gin.H{
-			"error": "slow_down",
-		})
-		return
-	case err != nil:
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, dto.OidcTokenResponseDto{
-		AccessToken:  tokens.AccessToken,
-		TokenType:    "Bearer",
-		ExpiresIn:    int(tokens.ExpiresIn.Seconds()),
-		IdToken:      tokens.IdToken,      // May be empty
-		RefreshToken: tokens.RefreshToken, // May be empty
-	})
-}
-
-// pushedAuthorizationRequestHandler godoc
-// @Summary Pushed Authorization Request (PAR)
-// @Description RFC 9126: Push authorization request parameters and receive a request_uri. Only confidential clients may use this endpoint.
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept application/x-www-form-urlencoded
-// @Produce json
-// @Success 201 {object} dto.OidcPARResponseDto
-// @Router /api/oidc/par [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) pushedAuthorizationRequestHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	// Per RFC 9126, parameters MUST be passed in the request body
-	c.Request.URL.RawQuery = ""
-
-	var input dto.OidcPARRequestDto
-	if err := c.ShouldBind(&input); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Client id and secret can also be passed over the Authorization header
-	if input.ClientID == "" && input.ClientSecret == "" {
-		input.ClientID, input.ClientSecret, _ = utils.OAuthClientBasicAuth(c.Request)
-	}
-
-	creds := service.ClientAuthCredentials{
-		ClientID:            input.ClientID,
-		ClientSecret:        input.ClientSecret,
-		ClientAssertion:     input.ClientAssertion,
-		ClientAssertionType: input.ClientAssertionType,
-	}
-
-	requestURI, expiresIn, err := oc.oidcService.CreatePushedAuthorizationRequest(c.Request.Context(), creds, input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	// RFC 9126 §2.2 requires HTTP 201 Created for successful PAR responses
-	c.JSON(http.StatusCreated, dto.OidcPARResponseDto{
-		RequestURI: requestURI,
-		ExpiresIn:  expiresIn,
-	})
-}
-
-// userInfoHandler godoc
-// @Summary Get user information
-// @Description Get user information based on the access token
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept json
-// @Produce json
-// @Success 200 {object} object "User claims based on requested scopes"
-// @Security OAuth2AccessToken
-// @Router /api/oidc/userinfo [get]
-func (oc *OidcController) userInfoHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	_, authToken, ok := strings.Cut(c.GetHeader("Authorization"), " ")
-	if !ok || authToken == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.MissingAccessToken{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	token, err := oc.jwtService.VerifyOAuthAccessToken(authToken)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-	userID, ok := token.Subject()
-	if !ok {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.TokenInvalidError{})
-		return
-	}
-	clientID, ok := token.Audience()
-	if !ok || len(clientID) != 1 {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.TokenInvalidError{})
-		return
-	}
-	claims, err := oc.oidcService.GetUserClaimsForClient(c.Request.Context(), userID, clientID[0])
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, claims)
-}
-
-// EndSessionHandler godoc
-// @Summary End OIDC session
-// @Description End user session and handle OIDC logout
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept application/x-www-form-urlencoded
-// @Param id_token_hint query string false "ID token"
-// @Param post_logout_redirect_uri query string false "URL to redirect to after logout"
-// @Param state query string false "State parameter to include in the redirect"
-// @Success 302 "Redirect to post-logout URL or application logout page"
-// @Router /api/oidc/end-session [get]
-func (oc *OidcController) EndSessionHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	var input dto.OidcLogoutDto
-
-	// Bind query parameters to the struct
-	switch c.Request.Method {
-	case http.MethodGet:
-		if err := c.ShouldBindQuery(&input); err != nil {
-			_ = c.Error(err)
-			return
-		}
-	case http.MethodPost:
-		// Bind form parameters to the struct
-		if err := c.ShouldBind(&input); err != nil {
-			_ = c.Error(err)
-			return
-		}
-	}
-
-	callbackURL, err := oc.oidcService.ValidateEndSession(c.Request.Context(), input, c.GetString("userID"))
-	if err != nil {
-		// If the validation fails, the user has to confirm the logout manually and doesn't get redirected
-		slog.WarnContext(c.Request.Context(), "Error getting logout callback URL, the user has to confirm the logout manually", "error", err)
-		c.Redirect(http.StatusFound, common.EnvConfig.AppURL+"/logout")
-		return
-	}
-
-	// The validation was successful, so we can log out and redirect the user to the callback URL without confirmation
-	cookie.AddAccessTokenCookie(c, 0, "")
-
-	// Callback URL can be empty if none is configured
-	if callbackURL == "" {
-		c.Redirect(http.StatusFound, common.EnvConfig.AppURL+"/logout")
-		return
-	}
-
-	logoutCallbackURL, _ := url.Parse(callbackURL)
-	if input.State != "" {
-		q := logoutCallbackURL.Query()
-		q.Set("state", input.State)
-		logoutCallbackURL.RawQuery = q.Encode()
-	}
-
-	c.Redirect(http.StatusFound, logoutCallbackURL.String())
-}
-
-// EndSessionHandler godoc (POST method)
-// @Summary End OIDC session (POST method)
-// @Description End user session and handle OIDC logout using POST
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Accept application/x-www-form-urlencoded
-// @Produce html
-// @Param id_token_hint formData string false "ID token"
-// @Param post_logout_redirect_uri formData string false "URL to redirect to after logout"
-// @Param state formData string false "State parameter to include in the redirect"
-// @Success 302 "Redirect to post-logout URL or application logout page"
-// @Router /api/oidc/end-session [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) EndSessionHandlerPost(c *gin.Context) {
-	// Implementation is the same as GET
-}
-
-// introspectToken godoc
-// @Summary Introspect OIDC tokens
-// @Description Pass an access_token to verify if it is considered valid.
-// @Tags OIDC
-// @Produce json
-// @Param token formData string true "The token to be introspected."
-// @Success 200 {object} dto.OidcIntrospectionResponseDto "Response with the introspection result."
-// @Router /api/oidc/introspect [post]
-func (oc *OidcController) introspectTokenHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	var input dto.OidcIntrospectDto
-	if err := c.ShouldBind(&input); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Client id and secret have to be passed over the Authorization header. This kind of
-	// authentication allows us to keep the endpoint protected (since it could be used to
-	// find valid tokens) while still allowing it to be used by an application that is
-	// supposed to interact with our IdP (since that needs to have a client_id
-	// and client_secret anyway).
-	var (
-		creds service.ClientAuthCredentials
-		ok    bool
-	)
-	creds.ClientID, creds.ClientSecret, ok = utils.OAuthClientBasicAuth(c.Request)
-	if !ok {
-		// If there's no basic auth, check if we have a bearer token (used as client assertion)
-		bearer, ok := utils.BearerAuth(c.Request)
-		if ok {
-			creds.ClientAssertionType = service.ClientAssertionTypeJWTBearer
-			creds.ClientAssertion = bearer
-			// When using client assertions, client_id can be passed as a form field
-			creds.ClientID = input.ClientID
-		}
-	}
-
-	response, err := oc.oidcService.IntrospectToken(c.Request.Context(), creds, input.Token)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, response)
+	oidcService *service.OidcService
 }

 // getClientMetaDataHandler godoc
@@ -810,46 +364,6 @@ func (oc *OidcController) updateAllowedUserGroupsHandler(c *gin.Context) {
 	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, oidcClientDto)
 }

-// This method can modify the value of clientSecret and clientID
-func parseBasicAuth(r *http.Request, clientSecret *string, clientID *string) {
-	// Client id and secret can also be passed via the Authorization header (RFC 6749, section 2.3.1 "client_secret_basic")
-	// When PKCE is used, some libraries send client_id in the body for the code_verifier binding while keeping the secret only in the Authorization header
-	// We therefore fall back to Basic auth whenever the secret is missing, not only when both fields are empty
-	if *clientSecret == "" {
-		basicID, basicSecret, ok := utils.OAuthClientBasicAuth(r)
-		if ok {
-			if *clientID == "" {
-				*clientID = basicID
-			}
-			*clientSecret = basicSecret
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func (oc *OidcController) deviceAuthorizationHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	// Per RFC 8628 (OAuth 2.0 Device Authorization Grant), parameters for the device authorization request MUST be sent in the body of the POST request
-	// Gin's "ShouldBind" by default reads from the query string too, so we need to reset all query string args before invoking ShouldBind
-	c.Request.URL.RawQuery = ""
-
-	var input dto.OidcDeviceAuthorizationRequestDto
-	err := c.ShouldBind(&input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Check if the client ID / secret are passed in the Authorization header (RFC 6749)
-	parseBasicAuth(c.Request, &input.ClientSecret, &input.ClientID)
-
-	response, err := oc.oidcService.CreateDeviceAuthorization(c.Request.Context(), input)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, response)
-}
-
 // listOwnAuthorizedClientsHandler godoc
 // @Summary List authorized clients for current user
 // @Description Get a paginated list of OIDC clients that the current user has authorized
@@ -951,49 +465,6 @@ func (oc *OidcController) listOwnAccessibleClientsHandler(c *gin.Context) {
 	})
 }

-func (oc *OidcController) verifyDeviceCodeHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userCode := c.Query("code")
-	if userCode == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.ValidationError{Message: "code is required"})
-		return
-	}
-
-	// Get IP address and user agent from the request context
-	ipAddress := c.ClientIP()
-	userAgent := c.Request.UserAgent()
-
-	err := oc.oidcService.VerifyDeviceCode(
-		c.Request.Context(),
-		userCode,
-		c.GetString("userID"),
-		c.GetString("authenticationMethod"),
-		ipAddress,
-		userAgent)
-
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
-}
-
-func (oc *OidcController) getDeviceCodeInfoHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userCode := c.Query("code")
-	if userCode == "" {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.ValidationError{Message: "code is required"})
-		return
-	}
-
-	deviceCodeInfo, err := oc.oidcService.GetDeviceCodeInfo(c.Request.Context(), userCode, c.GetString("userID"))
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, deviceCodeInfo)
-}
-
 // getClientPreviewHandler godoc
 // @Summary Preview OIDC client data for user
 // @Description Get a preview of the OIDC data (ID token, access token, userinfo) that would be sent to the client for a specific user
--- a/backend/internal/controller/oidc_controller_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/oidc_controller_test.go
@@ -1,264 +0,0 @@
-package controller
-
-import (
-	"context"
-	"encoding/base64"
-	"encoding/json"
-	"errors"
-	"net/http"
-	"net/http/httptest"
-	"net/url"
-	"strings"
-	"testing"
-	"time"
-
-	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
-	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
-	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
-
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
-)
-
-func TestCreateTokensHandler(t *testing.T) {
-	createTestContext := func(t *testing.T, rawURL string, form url.Values, authHeader string, noCT bool) (*gin.Context, *httptest.ResponseRecorder) {
-		t.Helper()
-
-		mode := gin.Mode()
-		gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
-		t.Cleanup(func() { gin.SetMode(mode) })
-
-		recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-		c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(recorder)
-
-		req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(t.Context(), http.MethodPost, rawURL, strings.NewReader(form.Encode()))
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-
-		if !noCT {
-			req.Header.Set("Content-Type", "application/x-www-form-urlencoded")
-		}
-		if authHeader != "" {
-			req.Header.Set("Authorization", authHeader)
-		}
-
-		c.Request = req
-		return c, recorder
-	}
-
-	t.Run("Ignores Query String Parameters For Binding", func(t *testing.T) {
-		oc := &OidcController{}
-
-		c, _ := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token?grant_type=refresh_token&refresh_token=query-value",
-			url.Values{},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Len(t, c.Errors, 1)
-		assert.Contains(t, c.Errors[0].Err.Error(), "GrantType")
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Missing Authorization Code", func(t *testing.T) {
-		oc := &OidcController{}
-
-		c, _ := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type": {service.GrantTypeAuthorizationCode},
-			},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Len(t, c.Errors, 1)
-		var missingCodeErr *common.OidcMissingAuthorizationCodeError
-		require.ErrorAs(t, c.Errors[0].Err, &missingCodeErr)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Missing Refresh Token", func(t *testing.T) {
-		oc := &OidcController{}
-
-		c, _ := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type": {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-			},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Len(t, c.Errors, 1)
-		var missingRefreshErr *common.OidcMissingRefreshTokenError
-		require.ErrorAs(t, c.Errors[0].Err, &missingRefreshErr)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Uses Basic Auth Credentials When Body Credentials Missing", func(t *testing.T) {
-		var capturedInput dto.OidcCreateTokensDto
-		oc := &OidcController{
-			createTokens: func(_ context.Context, input dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error) {
-				capturedInput = input
-				return service.CreatedTokens{
-					AccessToken:  "access-token",
-					IdToken:      "id-token",
-					RefreshToken: "refresh-token",
-					ExpiresIn:    2 * time.Minute,
-				}, nil
-			},
-		}
-
-		basicAuth := "Basic " + base64.StdEncoding.EncodeToString([]byte("client-id:client-secret"))
-		c, recorder := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type":    {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-				"refresh_token": {"input-refresh-token"},
-			},
-			basicAuth,
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Empty(t, c.Errors)
-		assert.Equal(t, "client-id", capturedInput.ClientID)
-		assert.Equal(t, "client-secret", capturedInput.ClientSecret)
-		assert.Equal(t, "input-refresh-token", capturedInput.RefreshToken)
-
-		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, recorder.Code)
-		var response dto.OidcTokenResponseDto
-		require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(recorder.Body.Bytes(), &response))
-		assert.Equal(t, "access-token", response.AccessToken)
-		assert.Equal(t, "Bearer", response.TokenType)
-		assert.Equal(t, "id-token", response.IdToken)
-		assert.Equal(t, "refresh-token", response.RefreshToken)
-		assert.Equal(t, 120, response.ExpiresIn)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Uses Basic Auth Secret When Body Has Only Client ID (PKCE)", func(t *testing.T) {
-		// Some OIDC libraries (e.g. jumbojett/openid-connect-php) combine client_secret_basic with PKCE by sending client_id in the body alongside code_verifier while keeping the secret only in the Authorization header
-		// RFC 6749 §2.3.1 permits this; the body client_id must not block the Basic auth fallback for the secret.
-		var capturedInput dto.OidcCreateTokensDto
-		oc := &OidcController{
-			createTokens: func(_ context.Context, input dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error) {
-				capturedInput = input
-				return service.CreatedTokens{
-					AccessToken:  "access-token",
-					IdToken:      "id-token",
-					RefreshToken: "refresh-token",
-					ExpiresIn:    2 * time.Minute,
-				}, nil
-			},
-		}
-
-		basicAuth := "Basic " + base64.StdEncoding.EncodeToString([]byte("client-id:client-secret"))
-		c, recorder := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type":    {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-				"refresh_token": {"input-refresh-token"},
-				"client_id":     {"client-id"},
-			},
-			basicAuth,
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Empty(t, c.Errors)
-		assert.Equal(t, "client-id", capturedInput.ClientID)
-		assert.Equal(t, "client-secret", capturedInput.ClientSecret)
-		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, recorder.Code)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Maps Authorization Pending Error", func(t *testing.T) {
-		oc := &OidcController{
-			createTokens: func(context.Context, dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error) {
-				return service.CreatedTokens{}, &common.OidcAuthorizationPendingError{}
-			},
-		}
-
-		c, recorder := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type":    {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-				"refresh_token": {"input-refresh-token"},
-			},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Empty(t, c.Errors)
-		require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, recorder.Code)
-		var response map[string]string
-		require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(recorder.Body.Bytes(), &response))
-		assert.Equal(t, "authorization_pending", response["error"])
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Maps Slow Down Error", func(t *testing.T) {
-		oc := &OidcController{
-			createTokens: func(context.Context, dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error) {
-				return service.CreatedTokens{}, &common.OidcSlowDownError{}
-			},
-		}
-
-		c, recorder := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type":    {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-				"refresh_token": {"input-refresh-token"},
-			},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Empty(t, c.Errors)
-		require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, recorder.Code)
-		var response map[string]string
-		require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(recorder.Body.Bytes(), &response))
-		assert.Equal(t, "slow_down", response["error"])
-	})
-
-	t.Run("Returns Generic Service Error In Context", func(t *testing.T) {
-		expectedErr := errors.New("boom")
-		oc := &OidcController{
-			createTokens: func(context.Context, dto.OidcCreateTokensDto) (service.CreatedTokens, error) {
-				return service.CreatedTokens{}, expectedErr
-			},
-		}
-
-		c, _ := createTestContext(
-			t,
-			"http://example.com/oidc/token",
-			url.Values{
-				"grant_type":    {service.GrantTypeRefreshToken},
-				"refresh_token": {"input-refresh-token"},
-			},
-			"",
-			false,
-		)
-
-		oc.createTokensHandler(c)
-
-		require.Len(t, c.Errors, 1)
-		assert.ErrorIs(t, c.Errors[0].Err, expectedErr)
-	})
-}
--- a/backend/internal/controller/user_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/user_controller.go
@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 package controller

 import (
+	"fmt"
 	"net/http"
 	"time"

+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/cookie"

@@ -12,7 +14,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
-	"golang.org/x/time/rate"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/webauthn"
 )

 const defaultOneTimeAccessTokenDuration = 15 * time.Minute
@@ -21,7 +23,7 @@ const defaultOneTimeAccessTokenDuration = 15 * time.Minute
 // @Summary User management controller
 // @Description Initializes all user-related API endpoints
 // @Tags Users
-func NewUserController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, rateLimitMiddleware *middleware.RateLimitMiddleware, userService *service.UserService, oneTimeAccessService *service.OneTimeAccessService, webAuthnService *service.WebAuthnService, appConfigService *service.AppConfigService) {
+func NewUserController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, rateLimitMiddleware *middleware.RateLimitMiddleware, userService *service.UserService, oneTimeAccessService *service.OneTimeAccessService, webAuthnService *webauthn.Module, appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService) {
 	uc := UserController{
 		userService:          userService,
 		oneTimeAccessService: oneTimeAccessService,
@@ -50,21 +52,21 @@ func NewUserController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMi
 	group.POST("/users/me/one-time-access-token", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.createOwnOneTimeAccessTokenHandler)
 	group.POST("/users/:id/one-time-access-token", authMiddleware.Add(), uc.createAdminOneTimeAccessTokenHandler)
 	group.POST("/users/:id/one-time-access-email", authMiddleware.Add(), uc.RequestOneTimeAccessEmailAsAdminHandler)
-	group.POST("/one-time-access-token/:token", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Second), 5), uc.exchangeOneTimeAccessTokenHandler)
-	group.POST("/one-time-access-email", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Minute), 3), uc.RequestOneTimeAccessEmailAsUnauthenticatedUserHandler)
+	group.POST("/one-time-access-token/:token", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitOneTimeAccessToken), uc.exchangeOneTimeAccessTokenHandler)
+	group.POST("/one-time-access-email", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitOneTimeAccessEmail), uc.RequestOneTimeAccessEmailAsUnauthenticatedUserHandler)

 	group.DELETE("/users/:id/profile-picture", authMiddleware.Add(), uc.resetUserProfilePictureHandler)
 	group.DELETE("/users/me/profile-picture", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.resetCurrentUserProfilePictureHandler)

-	group.POST("/users/me/send-email-verification", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Minute), 3), authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.sendEmailVerificationHandler)
-	group.POST("/users/me/verify-email", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Second), 5), authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.verifyEmailHandler)
+	group.POST("/users/me/send-email-verification", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitSendEmailVerification), authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.sendEmailVerificationHandler)
+	group.POST("/users/me/verify-email", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(middleware.RateLimitVerifyEmail), authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), uc.verifyEmailHandler)
 }

 type UserController struct {
 	userService          *service.UserService
 	oneTimeAccessService *service.OneTimeAccessService
-	webAuthnService      *service.WebAuthnService
-	appConfigService     *service.AppConfigService
+	webAuthnService      *webauthn.Module
+	appConfigService     *appconfig.AppConfigService
 }

 // getUserGroupsHandler godoc
@@ -508,20 +510,34 @@ func (uc *UserController) RequestOneTimeAccessEmailAsAdminHandler(c *gin.Context
 // @Success 200 {object} dto.UserDto
 // @Router /api/one-time-access-token/{token} [post]
 func (uc *UserController) exchangeOneTimeAccessTokenHandler(c *gin.Context) {
+	cfg, err := appconfig.FromCtx(c.Request.Context())
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = c.Error(fmt.Errorf("error loading app configuration: %w", err))
+		return
+	}
+
+	loginCode := c.Param("token")
+	// reject invalid length login codes
+	if len(loginCode) != 6 && len(loginCode) != 16 {
+		_ = c.Error(&common.TokenInvalidOrExpiredError{})
+		return
+	}
+
 	deviceToken, _ := c.Cookie(cookie.DeviceTokenCookieName)
-	user, token, err := uc.oneTimeAccessService.ExchangeOneTimeAccessToken(c.Request.Context(), c.Param("token"), deviceToken, c.ClientIP(), c.Request.UserAgent())
+	user, token, err := uc.oneTimeAccessService.ExchangeOneTimeAccessToken(c.Request.Context(), loginCode, deviceToken, c.ClientIP(), c.Request.UserAgent())
 	if err != nil {
 		_ = c.Error(err)
 		return
 	}

 	var userDto dto.UserDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(user, &userDto); err != nil {
+	err = dto.MapStruct(user, &userDto)
+	if err != nil {
 		_ = c.Error(err)
 		return
 	}

-	maxAge := int(uc.appConfigService.GetDbConfig().SessionDuration.AsDurationMinutes().Seconds())
+	maxAge := int(cfg.SessionDuration.AsDurationMinutes().Seconds())
 	cookie.AddAccessTokenCookie(c, maxAge, token)

 	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, userDto)
--- a/backend/internal/controller/webauthn_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/webauthn_controller.go
@@ -1,207 +0,0 @@
-package controller
-
-import (
-	"net/http"
-	"time"
-
-	"github.com/go-webauthn/webauthn/protocol"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/middleware"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/cookie"
-
-	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
-	"golang.org/x/time/rate"
-)
-
-func NewWebauthnController(group *gin.RouterGroup, authMiddleware *middleware.AuthMiddleware, rateLimitMiddleware *middleware.RateLimitMiddleware, webauthnService *service.WebAuthnService, appConfigService *service.AppConfigService) {
-	wc := &WebauthnController{webAuthnService: webauthnService, appConfigService: appConfigService}
-	group.GET("/webauthn/register/start", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.beginRegistrationHandler)
-	group.POST("/webauthn/register/finish", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.verifyRegistrationHandler)
-
-	group.GET("/webauthn/login/start", wc.beginLoginHandler)
-	group.POST("/webauthn/login/finish", rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Second), 5), wc.verifyLoginHandler)
-
-	group.POST("/webauthn/logout", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.logoutHandler)
-
-	group.POST("/webauthn/reauthenticate", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), rateLimitMiddleware.Add(rate.Every(10*time.Second), 5), wc.reauthenticateHandler)
-
-	group.GET("/webauthn/credentials", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.listCredentialsHandler)
-	group.PATCH("/webauthn/credentials/:id", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.updateCredentialHandler)
-	group.DELETE("/webauthn/credentials/:id", authMiddleware.WithAdminNotRequired().Add(), wc.deleteCredentialHandler)
-}
-
-type WebauthnController struct {
-	webAuthnService  *service.WebAuthnService
-	appConfigService *service.AppConfigService
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) beginRegistrationHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userID := c.GetString("userID")
-	options, err := wc.webAuthnService.BeginRegistration(c.Request.Context(), userID)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	cookie.AddSessionIdCookie(c, int(options.Timeout.Seconds()), options.SessionID)
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, options.Response)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) verifyRegistrationHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	sessionID, err := c.Cookie(cookie.SessionIdCookieName)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.MissingSessionIdError{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	userID := c.GetString("userID")
-	credential, err := wc.webAuthnService.VerifyRegistration(c.Request.Context(), sessionID, userID, c.Request, c.ClientIP())
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var credentialDto dto.WebauthnCredentialDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(credential, &credentialDto); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, credentialDto)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) beginLoginHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	options, err := wc.webAuthnService.BeginLogin(c.Request.Context())
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	cookie.AddSessionIdCookie(c, int(options.Timeout.Seconds()), options.SessionID)
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, options.Response)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) verifyLoginHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	sessionID, err := c.Cookie(cookie.SessionIdCookieName)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.MissingSessionIdError{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	credentialAssertionData, err := protocol.ParseCredentialRequestResponseBody(c.Request.Body)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	user, token, err := wc.webAuthnService.VerifyLogin(c.Request.Context(), sessionID, credentialAssertionData, c.ClientIP(), c.Request.UserAgent())
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var userDto dto.UserDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(user, &userDto); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	maxAge := int(wc.appConfigService.GetDbConfig().SessionDuration.AsDurationMinutes().Seconds())
-	cookie.AddAccessTokenCookie(c, maxAge, token)
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, userDto)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) listCredentialsHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userID := c.GetString("userID")
-	credentials, err := wc.webAuthnService.ListCredentials(c.Request.Context(), userID)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var credentialDtos []dto.WebauthnCredentialDto
-	if err := dto.MapStructList(credentials, &credentialDtos); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, credentialDtos)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) deleteCredentialHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userID := c.GetString("userID")
-	credentialID := c.Param("id")
-	clientIP := c.ClientIP()
-	userAgent := c.Request.UserAgent()
-
-	err := wc.webAuthnService.DeleteCredential(c.Request.Context(), userID, credentialID, clientIP, userAgent, userID)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) updateCredentialHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	userID := c.GetString("userID")
-	credentialID := c.Param("id")
-
-	var input dto.WebauthnCredentialUpdateDto
-	if err := c.ShouldBindJSON(&input); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	credential, err := wc.webAuthnService.UpdateCredential(c.Request.Context(), userID, credentialID, input.Name)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	var credentialDto dto.WebauthnCredentialDto
-	if err := dto.MapStruct(credential, &credentialDto); err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(err)
-		return
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, credentialDto)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) logoutHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	cookie.AddAccessTokenCookie(c, 0, "")
-	c.Status(http.StatusNoContent)
-}
-
-func (wc *WebauthnController) reauthenticateHandler(c *gin.Context) {
-	sessionID, err := c.Cookie(cookie.SessionIdCookieName)
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = c.Error(&common.MissingSessionIdError{})
-		return
-	}
-
-	var token string
-
-	// Try to create a reauthentication token with WebAuthn
-	credentialAssertionData, err := protocol.ParseCredentialRequestResponseBody(c.Request.Body)
-	if err == nil {
-		token, err = wc.webAuthnService.CreateReauthenticationTokenWithWebauthn(c.Request.Context(), sessionID, credentialAssertionData)
-		if err != nil {
-			_ = c.Error(err)
-			return
-		}
-	} else {
-		// If WebAuthn fails, try to create a reauthentication token with the access token
-		accessToken, _ := c.Cookie(cookie.AccessTokenCookieName)
-		token, err = wc.webAuthnService.CreateReauthenticationTokenWithAccessToken(c.Request.Context(), accessToken)
-		if err != nil {
-			_ = c.Error(err)
-			return
-		}
-	}
-
-	c.JSON(http.StatusOK, gin.H{"reauthenticationToken": token})
-}
--- a/backend/internal/controller/well_known_controller.go
+++ b/backend/internal/controller/well_known_controller.go
@@ -84,15 +84,18 @@ func (wkc *WellKnownController) computeOIDCConfiguration() ([]byte, error) {
 		"device_authorization_endpoint":                  appUrl + "/api/oidc/device/authorize",
 		"jwks_uri":                                       internalAppUrl + "/.well-known/jwks.json",
 		"grant_types_supported":                          []string{service.GrantTypeAuthorizationCode, service.GrantTypeRefreshToken, service.GrantTypeDeviceCode, service.GrantTypeClientCredentials},
-		"scopes_supported":                               []string{"openid", "profile", "email", "groups"},
-		"claims_supported":                               []string{"sub", "given_name", "family_name", "name", "email", "email_verified", "preferred_username", "picture", "groups"},
+		"scopes_supported":                               []string{"openid", "profile", "email", "groups", "offline_access"},
+		"claims_supported":                               []string{"sub", "given_name", "family_name", "name", "display_name", "email", "email_verified", "preferred_username", "picture", "groups", "auth_time", "amr"},
 		"response_types_supported":                       []string{"code", "id_token"},
 		"subject_types_supported":                        []string{"public"},
 		"id_token_signing_alg_values_supported":          []string{alg.String()},
 		"authorization_response_iss_parameter_supported": true,
 		"code_challenge_methods_supported":               []string{"plain", "S256"},
+		"request_parameter_supported":                    true,
+		"request_uri_parameter_supported":                false,
+		"request_object_signing_alg_values_supported":    []string{"none"},
 		"prompt_values_supported":                        []string{"none", "login", "consent", "select_account"},
-		"token_endpoint_auth_methods_supported":          []string{"client_secret_basic", "client_secret_post", "private_key_jwt", "none"},
+		"token_endpoint_auth_methods_supported":          []string{"client_secret_basic", "client_secret_post", "none"},
 		"pushed_authorization_request_endpoint":          internalAppUrl + "/api/oidc/par",
 		"require_pushed_authorization_requests":          false,
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/dto/dto_normalize.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/dto_normalize.go
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 package dto

 import (
-	"net/http"
 	"reflect"

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
@@ -73,22 +72,3 @@ loop:
 func ShouldBindWithNormalizedJSON(ctx *gin.Context, obj any) error {
 	return ctx.ShouldBindWith(obj, binding.JSON)
 }
-
-type NormalizerJSONBinding struct{}
-
-func (NormalizerJSONBinding) Name() string {
-	return "json"
-}
-
-func (NormalizerJSONBinding) Bind(req *http.Request, obj any) error {
-	// Use the default JSON binder
-	err := binding.JSON.Bind(req, obj)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	// Perform normalization
-	Normalize(obj)
-
-	return nil
-}
--- a/backend/internal/dto/oidc_dto.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/oidc_dto.go
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
 type OidcClientMetaDataDto struct {
 	ID                       string  `json:"id"`
 	Name                     string  `json:"name"`
+	Description              string  `json:"description"`
 	HasLogo                  bool    `json:"hasLogo"`
 	HasDarkLogo              bool    `json:"hasDarkLogo"`
 	LaunchURL                *string `json:"launchURL"`
@@ -18,8 +19,10 @@ type OidcClientDto struct {
 	IsPublic                            bool                     `json:"isPublic"`
 	PkceEnabled                         bool                     `json:"pkceEnabled"`
 	RequiresPushedAuthorizationRequests bool                     `json:"requiresPushedAuthorizationRequests"`
+	SkipConsent                         bool                     `json:"skipConsent"`
 	Credentials                         OidcClientCredentialsDto `json:"credentials"`
 	IsGroupRestricted                   bool                     `json:"isGroupRestricted"`
+	PkceSupported                       bool                     `json:"pkceSupported,omitempty"`
 }

 type OidcClientWithAllowedUserGroupsDto struct {
@@ -34,12 +37,14 @@ type OidcClientWithAllowedGroupsCountDto struct {

 type OidcClientUpdateDto struct {
 	Name                                string                   `json:"name" binding:"required,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
+	Description                         string                   `json:"description" binding:"omitempty,max=150" unorm:"nfc"`
 	CallbackURLs                        []string                 `json:"callbackURLs" binding:"omitempty,dive,callback_url_pattern"`
 	LogoutCallbackURLs                  []string                 `json:"logoutCallbackURLs" binding:"omitempty,dive,callback_url_pattern"`
 	IsPublic                            bool                     `json:"isPublic"`
 	PkceEnabled                         bool                     `json:"pkceEnabled"`
 	RequiresReauthentication            bool                     `json:"requiresReauthentication"`
 	RequiresPushedAuthorizationRequests bool                     `json:"requiresPushedAuthorizationRequests"`
+	SkipConsent                         bool                     `json:"skipConsent"`
 	Credentials                         OidcClientCredentialsDto `json:"credentials"`
 	LaunchURL                           *string                  `json:"launchURL" binding:"omitempty,url"`
 	HasLogo                             bool                     `json:"hasLogo"`
@@ -59,93 +64,11 @@ type OidcClientCredentialsDto struct {
 }

 type OidcClientFederatedIdentityDto struct {
-	Issuer   string `json:"issuer"`
-	Subject  string `json:"subject,omitempty"`
-	Audience string `json:"audience,omitempty"`
-	JWKS     string `json:"jwks,omitempty"`
-}
-
-type AuthorizeOidcClientRequestDto struct {
-	ClientID              string `json:"clientID" binding:"required"`
-	Scope                 string `json:"scope" binding:"required_without=RequestURI"`
-	CallbackURL           string `json:"callbackURL"`
-	Nonce                 string `json:"nonce"`
-	CodeChallenge         string `json:"codeChallenge"`
-	CodeChallengeMethod   string `json:"codeChallengeMethod"`
-	ReauthenticationToken string `json:"reauthenticationToken"`
-	Prompt                string `json:"prompt"`
-	ResponseMode          string `json:"responseMode" binding:"omitempty,response_mode"`
-	RequestURI            string `json:"requestURI"`
-}
-
-type OidcPARRequestDto struct {
-	ClientID            string `form:"client_id"`
-	ClientSecret        string `form:"client_secret"`
-	ClientAssertion     string `form:"client_assertion"`
-	ClientAssertionType string `form:"client_assertion_type"`
-	ResponseType        string `form:"response_type" binding:"required"`
-	Scope               string `form:"scope" binding:"required"`
-	RedirectURI         string `form:"redirect_uri"`
-	State               string `form:"state"`
-	Nonce               string `form:"nonce"`
-	CodeChallenge       string `form:"code_challenge"`
-	CodeChallengeMethod string `form:"code_challenge_method"`
-	Prompt              string `form:"prompt"`
-	ResponseMode        string `form:"response_mode" binding:"omitempty,response_mode"`
-}
-
-type OidcPARResponseDto struct {
-	RequestURI string `json:"request_uri"`
-	ExpiresIn  int    `json:"expires_in"`
-}
-
-type AuthorizeOidcClientResponseDto struct {
-	Code        string `json:"code"`
-	CallbackURL string `json:"callbackURL"`
-	Issuer      string `json:"issuer"`
-}
-
-type AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackRequestDto struct {
-	ClientID    string `json:"clientID" binding:"required"`
-	CallbackURL string `json:"callbackURL"`
-	RequestURI  string `json:"requestURI"`
-}
-
-type AuthorizeOidcClientCallbackResponseDto struct {
-	CallbackURL string `json:"callbackURL"`
-}
-
-type AuthorizationRequiredDto struct {
-	ClientID   string `json:"clientID" binding:"required"`
-	Scope      string `json:"scope"`
-	RequestURI string `json:"requestURI"`
-}
-
-type OidcAuthorizeRequestInfoDto struct {
-	Scope        string `json:"scope"`
-	RedirectURI  string `json:"redirectURI"`
-	State        string `json:"state,omitempty"`
-	Nonce        string `json:"nonce,omitempty"`
-	ResponseMode string `json:"responseMode,omitempty"`
-	Prompt       string `json:"prompt,omitempty"`
-}
-
-type OidcCreateTokensDto struct {
-	GrantType           string `form:"grant_type" binding:"required"`
-	Code                string `form:"code"`
-	DeviceCode          string `form:"device_code"`
-	ClientID            string `form:"client_id"`
-	ClientSecret        string `form:"client_secret"`
-	CodeVerifier        string `form:"code_verifier"`
-	RefreshToken        string `form:"refresh_token"`
-	ClientAssertion     string `form:"client_assertion"`
-	ClientAssertionType string `form:"client_assertion_type"`
-	Resource            string `form:"resource"`
-}
-
-type OidcIntrospectDto struct {
-	Token    string `form:"token" binding:"required"`
-	ClientID string `form:"client_id"`
+	Issuer           string `json:"issuer"`
+	Subject          string `json:"subject,omitempty"`
+	Audience         string `json:"audience,omitempty"`
+	JWKS             string `json:"jwks,omitempty"`
+	ReplayProtection bool   `json:"replayProtection"`
 }

 type OidcUpdateAllowedUserGroupsDto struct {
@@ -159,36 +82,6 @@ type OidcLogoutDto struct {
 	State                 string `form:"state"`
 }

-type OidcTokenResponseDto struct {
-	AccessToken  string `json:"access_token"`
-	TokenType    string `json:"token_type"`
-	IdToken      string `json:"id_token,omitempty"`
-	RefreshToken string `json:"refresh_token,omitempty"`
-	ExpiresIn    int    `json:"expires_in"`
-}
-
-type OidcIntrospectionResponseDto struct {
-	Active     bool     `json:"active"`
-	TokenType  string   `json:"token_type,omitempty"`
-	Scope      string   `json:"scope,omitempty"`
-	Expiration int64    `json:"exp,omitempty"`
-	IssuedAt   int64    `json:"iat,omitempty"`
-	NotBefore  int64    `json:"nbf,omitempty"`
-	Subject    string   `json:"sub,omitempty"`
-	Audience   []string `json:"aud,omitempty"`
-	Issuer     string   `json:"iss,omitempty"`
-	Identifier string   `json:"jti,omitempty"`
-}
-
-type OidcDeviceAuthorizationRequestDto struct {
-	ClientID            string `form:"client_id" binding:"required"`
-	Scope               string `form:"scope" binding:"required"`
-	ClientSecret        string `form:"client_secret"`
-	ClientAssertion     string `form:"client_assertion"`
-	ClientAssertionType string `form:"client_assertion_type"`
-	Nonce               string `form:"nonce"`
-}
-
 type OidcDeviceAuthorizationResponseDto struct {
 	DeviceCode              string `json:"device_code"`
 	UserCode                string `json:"user_code"`
@@ -196,20 +89,20 @@ type OidcDeviceAuthorizationResponseDto struct {
 	VerificationURIComplete string `json:"verification_uri_complete"`
 	ExpiresIn               int    `json:"expires_in"`
 	Interval                int    `json:"interval"`
-	RequiresAuthorization   bool   `json:"requires_authorization"`
 }

-type OidcDeviceTokenRequestDto struct {
-	GrantType    string `form:"grant_type" binding:"required,eq=urn:ietf:params:oauth:grant-type:device_code"`
-	DeviceCode   string `form:"device_code" binding:"required"`
-	ClientID     string `form:"client_id"`
-	ClientSecret string `form:"client_secret"`
+type ScopeInfoDto struct {
+	Key         string `json:"key"`
+	Name        string `json:"name"`
+	Description string `json:"description,omitempty"`
 }

 type DeviceCodeInfoDto struct {
-	Scope                 string                `json:"scope"`
-	AuthorizationRequired bool                  `json:"authorizationRequired"`
-	Client                OidcClientMetaDataDto `json:"client"`
+	Scope                    []string              `json:"scope"`
+	ScopeInfo                []ScopeInfoDto        `json:"scopeInfo"`
+	AuthorizationRequired    bool                  `json:"authorizationRequired"`
+	ReauthenticationRequired bool                  `json:"reauthenticationRequired"`
+	Client                   OidcClientMetaDataDto `json:"client"`
 }

 type AuthorizedOidcClientDto struct {
--- a/backend/internal/dto/signup_dto.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/signup_dto.go
@@ -1,9 +0,0 @@
-package dto
-
-type SignUpDto struct {
-	Username  string  `json:"username" binding:"required,username,min=1,max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
-	Email     *string `json:"email" binding:"omitempty,email" unorm:"nfc"`
-	FirstName string  `json:"firstName" binding:"max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
-	LastName  string  `json:"lastName" binding:"max=50" unorm:"nfc"`
-	Token     string  `json:"token"`
-}
--- a/backend/internal/dto/signup_token_dto.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/signup_token_dto.go
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-package dto
-
-import (
-	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
-)
-
-type SignupTokenCreateDto struct {
-	TTL          utils.JSONDuration `json:"ttl" binding:"required,ttl"`
-	UsageLimit   int                `json:"usageLimit" binding:"required,min=1,max=100"`
-	UserGroupIDs []string           `json:"userGroupIds"`
-}
-
-type SignupTokenDto struct {
-	ID         string                `json:"id"`
-	Token      string                `json:"token"`
-	ExpiresAt  datatype.DateTime     `json:"expiresAt"`
-	UsageLimit int                   `json:"usageLimit"`
-	UsageCount int                   `json:"usageCount"`
-	UserGroups []UserGroupMinimalDto `json:"userGroups"`
-	CreatedAt  datatype.DateTime     `json:"createdAt"`
-}
--- a/backend/internal/dto/validations.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/validations.go
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"time"

+	"github.com/ory/fosite"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin/binding"
@@ -47,8 +48,8 @@ func init() {
 		"callback_url_pattern": func(fl validator.FieldLevel) bool {
 			return ValidateCallbackURLPattern(fl.Field().String())
 		},
-		"response_mode": func(fl validator.FieldLevel) bool {
-			return ValidateResponseMode(fl.Field().String())
+		"resource_uri": func(fl validator.FieldLevel) bool {
+			return ValidateResourceURI(fl.Field().String())
 		},
 	}
 	for k, v := range validators {
@@ -69,6 +70,27 @@ func ValidateClientID(clientID string) bool {
 	return validateClientIDRegex.MatchString(clientID)
 }

+// isActiveContentScheme reports whether the URL scheme can carry executable content, so it must never be accepted where a URL might later be rendered as a link
+func isActiveContentScheme(scheme string) bool {
+	switch strings.ToLower(scheme) {
+	case "javascript", "data":
+		return true
+	default:
+		return false
+	}
+}
+
+// ValidateResourceURI validates RFC 8707 resource identifiers
+func ValidateResourceURI(str string) bool {
+	if !fosite.IsValidResourceIndicatorURI(str) {
+		return false
+	}
+
+	// Reject active-content schemes so a resource identifier can never carry executable content if it is ever surfaced as a link
+	u, _ := url.Parse(str)
+	return !isActiveContentScheme(u.Scheme)
+}
+
 // ValidateCallbackURL validates the input callback URL
 func ValidateCallbackURL(str string) bool {
 	// Ensure the URL is a valid one and that the protocol is not "javascript:" or "data:"
@@ -77,30 +99,10 @@ func ValidateCallbackURL(str string) bool {
 		return false
 	}

-	switch strings.ToLower(u.Scheme) {
-	case "javascript", "data":
-		return false
-	default:
-		return true
-	}
+	return !isActiveContentScheme(u.Scheme)
 }

-// ValidateCallbackURLPattern validates callback URL patterns, with support for wildcards
+// ValidateCallbackURLPattern validates callback URL patterns, with support for wildcards.
 func ValidateCallbackURLPattern(raw string) bool {
-	err := utils.ValidateCallbackURLPattern(raw)
-	return err == nil
-}
-
-// ValidateResponseMode validates response_mode parameter
-// If responseMode is present, it must be "form_post", "query", or "fragment"
-// Empty responseMode is allowed (field not provided, use default)
-func ValidateResponseMode(responseMode string) bool {
-	switch responseMode {
-	case "form_post", "query", "fragment":
-		return true
-	case "":
-		return true
-	default:
-		return false
-	}
+	return utils.ValidateCallbackURLPattern(raw) == nil
 }
--- a/backend/internal/dto/validations_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/dto/validations_test.go
@@ -58,22 +58,31 @@ func TestValidateClientID(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }

-func TestValidateResponseMode(t *testing.T) {
+func TestValidateResourceURI(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		name     string
 		input    string
 		expected bool
 	}{
-		{"valid form_post", "form_post", true},
-		{"valid query", "query", true},
-		{"valid fragment", "fragment", true},
-		{"valid empty", "", true},
-		{"invalid unknown", "unknown", false},
+		{"valid https URI", "https://api.example.com", true},
+		{"valid custom scheme URI", "api://PocketID", true},
+		{"valid URN", "urn:my-app", true},
+		{"valid query component", "https://api.example.com?tenant=1", true},
+		{"invalid relative path", "/foo", false},
+		{"invalid plain string", "foo", false},
+		{"invalid fragment", "https://api.example.com#tokens", false},
+		{"invalid empty fragment", "https://api.example.com#", false},
+		{"invalid unescaped path space", "https://api.example.com/a b", false},
+		{"invalid unescaped opaque space", "urn:my app", false},
+		{"invalid malformed URI", "http://[::1", false},
+		{"invalid javascript scheme", "javascript:alert(1)", false},
+		{"invalid data scheme", "data:text/html,<script>alert(1)</script>", false},
+		{"empty", "", false},
 	}

 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			assert.Equal(t, tt.expected, ValidateResponseMode(tt.input))
+			assert.Equal(t, tt.expected, ValidateResourceURI(tt.input))
 		})
 	}
 }
@@ -102,3 +111,26 @@ func TestValidateCallbackURL(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func TestValidateCallbackURLPattern(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name     string
+		input    string
+		expected bool
+	}{
+		{"valid exact URL", "https://example.com/callback", true},
+		{"valid wildcard URL", "https://*.example.com/callback", true},
+		{"valid custom scheme", "pocketid://callback", true},
+		{"valid global wildcard", "*", true},
+		{"invalid relative URL", "/callback", false},
+		{"invalid malformed URL", "http://[::1", false},
+		{"rejects javascript scheme", "javascript:alert(1)", false},
+		{"rejects data scheme", "data:text/html;base64,PGgxPkhlbGxvPC9oMT4=", false},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			assert.Equal(t, tt.expected, ValidateCallbackURLPattern(tt.input))
+		})
+	}
+}
--- a/backend/internal/instanceid/instanceid.go
+++ b/backend/internal/instanceid/instanceid.go
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package instanceid
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/google/uuid"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+)
+
+// Load the instance ID for the Pocket ID cluster from the "kv" table
+// If no instance ID exists yet, a new one is generated and persisted atomically
+func Load(parentCtx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) (string, error) {
+	// Candidate value used only if there's no instance ID stored yet
+	newInstanceID := uuid.NewString()
+
+	// We use a raw query because gorm can't build it for us in this atomic way
+	// The syntax is valid for both SQLite and Postgres
+	var value string
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	err := db.
+		WithContext(ctx).
+		Raw(
+			`INSERT INTO kv (key, value)
+			VALUES ('instance_id', ?)
+			ON CONFLICT (key) DO UPDATE SET
+				value = CASE
+					WHEN kv.value = '' THEN excluded.value
+					ELSE kv.value
+				END
+			RETURNING value`,
+			newInstanceID,
+		).
+		Scan(&value).
+		Error
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to load instance ID from the database: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// We should have an instance ID now
+	// This case should never happen
+	if value == "" {
+		return "", errors.New("retrieved instance ID is unexpectedly empty")
+	}
+
+	return value, nil
+}
--- a/backend/internal/instanceid/instanceid_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/instanceid/instanceid_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,190 @@
+package instanceid
+
+import (
+	"sync"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/google/uuid"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"gorm.io/gorm"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
+	testutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
+)
+
+// readInstanceID returns the value stored in the kv table under the "instance_id" key, together with the number of rows that match (to detect duplicates)
+func readInstanceID(t *testing.T, db *gorm.DB) (value string, count int) {
+	t.Helper()
+	var rows []model.KV
+	err := db.Where("key = ?", "instance_id").Find(&rows).Error
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	if len(rows) == 0 {
+		return "", 0
+	}
+	require.NotNil(t, rows[0].Value, "instance_id value should not be NULL")
+	return *rows[0].Value, len(rows)
+}
+
+func TestLoad(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("generates and persists a new instance ID when none exists", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+
+		id, err := Load(t.Context(), db)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, id)
+
+		// The generated ID should be a valid UUID
+		_, err = uuid.Parse(id)
+		require.NoError(t, err, "generated instance ID should be a valid UUID")
+
+		// The value should have been persisted in the kv table
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, id, stored)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("returns the existing instance ID on subsequent calls", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+
+		first, err := Load(t.Context(), db)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, first)
+
+		// A second call must return the same ID and must not create a duplicate row
+		second, err := Load(t.Context(), db)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, first, second)
+
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, first, stored)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("returns an instance ID that was already stored", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)
+
+		// Seed an instance ID directly in the database, e.g. as written by the migration that moved it out of the app config table
+		existing := "existing-instance-id"
+		err := db.Create(&model.KV{Key: "instance_id", Value: &existing}).Error
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		id, err := Load(t.Context(), db)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, existing, id)
+
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, existing, stored)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("concurrent calls without an existing instance ID converge on a single value", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// This needs a database that allows concurrent access, so the goroutines race
+		db := testutils.NewConcurrentDatabaseForTest(t)
+
+		const parallel = 25
+
+		// Each goroutine writes to its own index, so no locking is needed to collect the results
+		ids := make([]string, parallel)
+		loadErrs := make([]error, parallel)
+
+		// The start channel is a barrier so all goroutines race their Load call at once
+		start := make(chan struct{})
+
+		var wg sync.WaitGroup
+		wg.Add(parallel)
+		for i := range parallel {
+			go func() {
+				defer wg.Done()
+				<-start
+				ids[i], loadErrs[i] = Load(t.Context(), db)
+			}()
+		}
+		close(start)
+		wg.Wait()
+
+		// No concurrent call should have failed
+		for i, err := range loadErrs {
+			require.NoErrorf(t, err, "goroutine %d errored", i)
+		}
+
+		// Every goroutine must have observed the same, non-empty instance ID, meaning only one of them actually generated and persisted a value
+		first := ids[0]
+		require.NotEmpty(t, first)
+		for _, id := range ids {
+			require.Equal(t, first, id)
+		}
+
+		// Only a single row must have been persisted, and it must match the shared value
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, first, stored)
+	})
+}
+
+// TestMigrateFromAppConfig validates the database migration that moves the instance ID out of the legacy app_config_variables table and into the kv table
+// The value used to be stored as an app config variable under the "instanceId" key
+func TestMigrateFromAppConfig(t *testing.T) {
+	// Version of the migration right before "20260708130000_move_instance_id_to_kv", which performs the move
+	// We seed the legacy table right after this version, so the following migration has data to operate on
+	const versionBeforeMove uint = 20260708120000
+
+	// seedAppConfigInstanceID inserts a legacy "instanceId" row into the app_config_variables table
+	seedAppConfigInstanceID := func(value string) func(t *testing.T, db *gorm.DB) {
+		return func(t *testing.T, db *gorm.DB) {
+			t.Helper()
+			err := db.Exec(`INSERT INTO app_config_variables ("key", "value") VALUES ('instanceId', ?)`, value).Error
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	// countLegacyInstanceID returns the number of "instanceId" rows left in the app_config_variables table
+	countLegacyInstanceID := func(t *testing.T, db *gorm.DB) int64 {
+		t.Helper()
+		var count int64
+		err := db.Table("app_config_variables").Where(`"key" = ?`, "instanceId").Count(&count).Error
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return count
+	}
+
+	t.Run("moves an existing instance ID from app_config_variables into the kv table", func(t *testing.T) {
+		legacyID := uuid.NewString()
+		db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTestWithMigrationSeed(t, versionBeforeMove, seedAppConfigInstanceID(legacyID))
+
+		// The migration should have copied the value into the kv table under the "instance_id" key
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, legacyID, stored)
+
+		// The legacy row must have been removed from app_config_variables
+		require.Zero(t, countLegacyInstanceID(t, db))
+
+		// Load must return the migrated value without generating a new one
+		id, err := Load(t.Context(), db)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, legacyID, id)
+
+		stored, count = readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, legacyID, stored)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("keeps the existing kv value when both tables have an instance ID", func(t *testing.T) {
+		legacyID := uuid.NewString()
+		db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTestWithMigrationSeed(t, versionBeforeMove, func(t *testing.T, db *gorm.DB) {
+			t.Helper()
+			// An instance ID is already present in the kv table before the move runs
+			err := db.Exec(`INSERT INTO kv ("key", "value") VALUES ('instance_id', ?)`, "kv-instance-id").Error
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			// And a different value lingers in the legacy app_config_variables table
+			seedAppConfigInstanceID(legacyID)(t, db)
+		})
+
+		// The migration must not clobber the value already stored in the kv table
+		stored, count := readInstanceID(t, db)
+		require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+		require.Equal(t, "kv-instance-id", stored)
+
+		// The legacy row must still be removed regardless of the conflict
+		require.Zero(t, countLegacyInstanceID(t, db))
+	})
+}
--- a/backend/internal/job/analytics_job.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/analytics_job.go
@@ -5,35 +5,72 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"encoding/json"
 	"fmt"
+	"log/slog"
 	"net/http"
 	"time"

 	backoff "github.com/cenkalti/backoff/v5"
-	"github.com/go-co-op/gocron/v2"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/cronjob"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 )

 const heartbeatUrl = "https://analytics.pocket-id.org/heartbeat"

-func (s *Scheduler) RegisterAnalyticsJob(ctx context.Context, appConfig *service.AppConfigService, httpClient *http.Client) error {
+// GetAnalyticsJob returns the CronJob actor
+func GetAnalyticsJob(httpClient *http.Client, instanceID string) (*cronjob.CronJob, error) {
 	// Skip if analytics are disabled or not in production environment
 	if common.EnvConfig.AnalyticsDisabled || !common.EnvConfig.AppEnv.IsProduction() {
-		return nil
+		return nil, nil
 	}

-	// Send every 24 hours
-	jobs := &AnalyticsJob{
-		appConfig:  appConfig,
+	job := &AnalyticsJob{
 		httpClient: httpClient,
 	}
-	return s.RegisterJob(ctx, "SendHeartbeat", gocron.DurationJob(24*time.Hour), jobs.sendHeartbeat, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true})
+	err := job.createBody(instanceID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error pre-computing request body: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Create the built-in actor
+	cj, err := cronjob.New(
+		"Analytics",
+		cronjob.WithJob(job.sendHeartbeat),
+		// Run every 24 hours
+		cronjob.WithInterval(24*time.Hour),
+		// Run immediately upon registration too
+		cronjob.WithImmediate(),
+		cronjob.WithLogger(slog.Default()),
+	)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error creating Analytics job: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return cj, nil
 }

 type AnalyticsJob struct {
-	appConfig  *service.AppConfigService
 	httpClient *http.Client
+	body       []byte
+}
+
+// createBody pre-computes the body for all requests
+func (j *AnalyticsJob) createBody(instanceID string) error {
+	body, err := json.Marshal(struct {
+		Version    string `json:"version"`
+		InstanceID string `json:"instance_id"`
+	}{
+		Version:    common.Version,
+		InstanceID: instanceID,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to marshal heartbeat body: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Set the body in the object
+	j.body = body
+
+	return nil
 }

 // sendHeartbeat sends a heartbeat to the analytics service
@@ -43,23 +80,13 @@ func (j *AnalyticsJob) sendHeartbeat(parentCtx context.Context) error {
 		return nil
 	}

-	body, err := json.Marshal(struct {
-		Version    string `json:"version"`
-		InstanceID string `json:"instance_id"`
-	}{
-		Version:    common.Version,
-		InstanceID: j.appConfig.GetDbConfig().InstanceID.Value,
-	})
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to marshal heartbeat body: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	_, err = backoff.Retry(
+	// Use a backoff to retry
+	_, err := backoff.Retry(
 		parentCtx,
 		func() (struct{}, error) {
 			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(parentCtx, 20*time.Second)
 			defer cancel()
-			req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodPost, heartbeatUrl, bytes.NewReader(body))
+			req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodPost, heartbeatUrl, bytes.NewReader(j.body))
 			if err != nil {
 				return struct{}{}, fmt.Errorf("failed to create request: %w", err)
 			}
@@ -77,7 +104,6 @@ func (j *AnalyticsJob) sendHeartbeat(parentCtx context.Context) error {
 		backoff.WithBackOff(backoff.NewExponentialBackOff()),
 		backoff.WithMaxTries(3),
 	)
-
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("heartbeat request failed: %w", err)
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/job/api_key_expiry_job.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/api_key_expiry_job.go
@@ -7,18 +7,23 @@ import (

 	"github.com/go-co-op/gocron/v2"

+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/apikey"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/email"
 )

 type ApiKeyEmailJobs struct {
-	apiKeyService    *service.ApiKeyService
-	appConfigService *service.AppConfigService
+	apiKeyModule     *apikey.Module
+	appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService
+	emailService     *service.EmailService
 }

-func (s *Scheduler) RegisterApiKeyExpiryJob(ctx context.Context, apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService, appConfigService *service.AppConfigService) error {
+func (s *Scheduler) RegisterApiKeyExpiryJob(ctx context.Context, apiKeyModule *apikey.Module, appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService, emailService *service.EmailService) error {
 	jobs := &ApiKeyEmailJobs{
-		apiKeyService:    apiKeyService,
+		apiKeyModule:     apiKeyModule,
 		appConfigService: appConfigService,
+		emailService:     emailService,
 	}

 	// Send every day at midnight
@@ -26,12 +31,17 @@ func (s *Scheduler) RegisterApiKeyExpiryJob(ctx context.Context, apiKeyService *
 }

 func (j *ApiKeyEmailJobs) checkAndNotifyExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context) error {
+	dbConfig, err := j.appConfigService.GetConfig(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error load app config: %w", err)
+	}
+
 	// Skip if the feature is disabled
-	if !j.appConfigService.GetDbConfig().EmailApiKeyExpirationEnabled.IsTrue() {
+	if !dbConfig.EmailApiKeyExpirationEnabled.IsTrue() {
 		return nil
 	}

-	apiKeys, err := j.apiKeyService.ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx, 7)
+	apiKeys, err := j.apiKeyModule.ListExpiringApiKeys(ctx, 7)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to list expiring API keys: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -40,13 +50,29 @@ func (j *ApiKeyEmailJobs) checkAndNotifyExpiringApiKeys(ctx context.Context) err
 		if key.User.Email == nil {
 			continue
 		}
-		err = j.apiKeyService.SendApiKeyExpiringSoonEmail(ctx, key)
+
+		err = service.SendEmail(ctx, j.emailService, email.Address{
+			Name:  key.User.FullName(),
+			Email: *key.User.Email,
+		}, service.ApiKeyExpiringSoonTemplate, &service.ApiKeyExpiringSoonTemplateData{
+			Name:       key.User.FirstName,
+			ApiKeyName: key.Name,
+			ExpiresAt:  key.ExpiresAt.ToTime(),
+		})
 		if err != nil {
 			slog.ErrorContext(ctx, "Failed to send expiring API key notification email",
 				slog.String("key", key.ID),
 				slog.String("user", key.User.ID),
 				slog.Any("error", err),
 			)
+			continue
+		}
+
+		if err = j.apiKeyModule.MarkExpirationEmailSent(ctx, key.ID); err != nil {
+			slog.ErrorContext(ctx, "Failed to record that the expiration email was sent",
+				slog.String("key", key.ID),
+				slog.Any("error", err),
+			)
 		}
 	}
 	return nil
--- a/backend/internal/job/db_cleanup_job.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/db_cleanup_job.go
@@ -13,7 +13,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/oidc"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/usersignup"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/webauthn"
 )

 func (s *Scheduler) RegisterDbCleanupJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) error {
@@ -34,11 +37,11 @@ func (s *Scheduler) RegisterDbCleanupJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB) erro
 		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOneTimeAccessTokens", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOneTimeAccessTokens, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
 		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearSignupTokens", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearSignupTokens, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
 		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearEmailVerificationTokens", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearEmailVerificationTokens, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
-		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOidcAuthorizationCodes", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOidcAuthorizationCodes, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
-		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOidcRefreshTokens", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOidcRefreshTokens, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
+		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOAuth2Sessions", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOAuth2Sessions, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
+		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOAuth2JTIs", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOAuth2JTIs, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
+		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearInteractionSessions", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearInteractionSessions, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
 		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearReauthenticationTokens", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearReauthenticationTokens, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
 		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearAuditLogs", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearAuditLogs, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
-		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOidcPushedAuthorizationRequests", jobDefWithJitter(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearOidcPushedAuthorizationRequests, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true, BackOff: newBackOff()}),
 	)
 }

@@ -46,16 +49,14 @@ type DbCleanupJobs struct {
 	db *gorm.DB
 }

-// ClearWebauthnSessions deletes WebAuthn sessions that have expired
+// clearWebauthnSessions deletes expired WebAuthn challenge sessions.
 func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearWebauthnSessions(ctx context.Context) error {
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.WebauthnSession{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired WebAuthn sessions: %w", st.Error)
+	count, err := webauthn.CleanupExpiredSessions(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired WebAuthn sessions: %w", err)
 	}

-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired WebAuthn sessions", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired WebAuthn sessions", slog.Int64("count", count))

 	return nil
 }
@@ -74,59 +75,63 @@ func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOneTimeAccessTokens(ctx context.Context) error {
 	return nil
 }

-// ClearSignupTokens deletes signup tokens that have expired
+// clearSignupTokens deletes signup tokens that have expired
 func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearSignupTokens(ctx context.Context) error {
-	// Delete tokens that are expired OR have reached their usage limit
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.SignupToken{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired tokens: %w", st.Error)
+	count, err := usersignup.CleanupExpiredSignupTokens(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired signup tokens: %w", err)
 	}

-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired tokens", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired signup tokens", slog.Int64("count", count))

 	return nil
 }

-// ClearOidcAuthorizationCodes deletes OIDC authorization codes that have expired
-func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOidcAuthorizationCodes(ctx context.Context) error {
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.OidcAuthorizationCode{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired OIDC authorization codes: %w", st.Error)
+// clearOAuth2Sessions deletes expired and invalidated OAuth2 sessions.
+func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOAuth2Sessions(ctx context.Context) error {
+	count, err := oidc.CleanupExpiredOAuth2Sessions(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean OAuth2 sessions: %w", err)
 	}

-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired OIDC authorization codes", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned OAuth2 sessions", slog.Int64("count", count))

 	return nil
 }

-// ClearOidcAuthorizationCodes deletes OIDC authorization codes that have expired
-func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOidcRefreshTokens(ctx context.Context) error {
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.OidcRefreshToken{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired OIDC refresh tokens: %w", st.Error)
+// clearOAuth2JTIs deletes expired JWT IDs used for client assertion replay protection.
+func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOAuth2JTIs(ctx context.Context) error {
+	count, err := oidc.CleanupExpiredClientAssertionJTIs(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean OAuth2 client assertion JTIs: %w", err)
 	}

-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired OIDC refresh tokens", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned OAuth2 client assertion JTIs", slog.Int64("count", count))

 	return nil
 }

-// ClearReauthenticationTokens deletes reauthentication tokens that have expired
+// clearInteractionSessions deletes abandoned OIDC interaction sessions.
+func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearInteractionSessions(ctx context.Context) error {
+	count, err := oidc.CleanupAbandonedInteractionSessions(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean interaction sessions: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned interaction sessions", slog.Int64("count", count))
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+// clearReauthenticationTokens deletes expired reauthentication tokens.
+// What counts as expired is owned by the webauthn module.
 func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearReauthenticationTokens(ctx context.Context) error {
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.ReauthenticationToken{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired reauthentication tokens: %w", st.Error)
+	count, err := webauthn.CleanupExpiredReauthenticationTokens(ctx, j.db)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired reauthentication tokens: %w", err)
 	}

-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired reauthentication tokens", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
+	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired reauthentication tokens", slog.Int64("count", count))

 	return nil
 }
@@ -147,20 +152,6 @@ func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearAuditLogs(ctx context.Context) error {
 	return nil
 }

-// clearOidcPushedAuthorizationRequests deletes PAR records that have expired without being consumed
-func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearOidcPushedAuthorizationRequests(ctx context.Context) error {
-	st := j.db.
-		WithContext(ctx).
-		Delete(&model.OidcPushedAuthorizationRequest{}, "expires_at < ?", datatype.DateTime(time.Now()))
-	if st.Error != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to clean expired pushed authorization requests: %w", st.Error)
-	}
-
-	slog.InfoContext(ctx, "Cleaned expired pushed authorization requests", slog.Int64("count", st.RowsAffected))
-
-	return nil
-}
-
 // ClearEmailVerificationTokens deletes email verification tokens that have expired
 func (j *DbCleanupJobs) clearEmailVerificationTokens(ctx context.Context) error {
 	st := j.db.
--- a/backend/internal/job/file_cleanup_job.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/file_cleanup_job.go
@@ -2,37 +2,56 @@ package job

 import (
 	"context"
-	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
 	"path"
 	"strings"
 	"time"

-	"github.com/go-co-op/gocron/v2"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/cronjob"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/storage"
 )

-func (s *Scheduler) RegisterFileCleanupJobs(ctx context.Context, db *gorm.DB, fileStorage storage.FileStorage) error {
-	jobs := &FileCleanupJobs{db: db, fileStorage: fileStorage}
-
-	var errs []error
-	errs = append(errs,
-		s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures", gocron.DurationJob(24*time.Hour), jobs.clearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures, service.RegisterJobOpts{}),
-	)
-
-	// Only necessary for file system storage
-	if fileStorage.Type() == storage.TypeFileSystem {
-		errs = append(errs,
-			s.RegisterJob(ctx, "ClearOrphanedTempFiles", gocron.DurationJob(12*time.Hour), jobs.clearOrphanedTempFiles, service.RegisterJobOpts{RunImmediately: true}),
-		)
+// GetFileCleanupJobs returns the CronJob actors
+func GetFileCleanupJobs(db *gorm.DB, fileStorage storage.FileStorage) (cjs []*cronjob.CronJob, err error) {
+	job := &FileCleanupJobs{
+		db:          db,
+		fileStorage: fileStorage,
 	}

-	return errors.Join(errs...)
+	// Create the built-in actor for the ClearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures job
+	cj, err := cronjob.New(
+		"ClearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures",
+		cronjob.WithJob(job.clearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures),
+		// Run every 24 hours
+		cronjob.WithInterval(24*time.Hour),
+		cronjob.WithLogger(slog.Default()),
+	)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error creating ClearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures job: %w", err)
+	}
+	cjs = append(cjs, cj)
+
+	// Create the built-in actor for the ClearOrphanedTempFiles job
+	// Only necessary for file system storage
+	if fileStorage.Type() == storage.TypeFileSystem {
+		cj, err := cronjob.New(
+			"ClearOrphanedTempFiles",
+			cronjob.WithJob(job.clearOrphanedTempFiles),
+			// Run every 12 hours
+			cronjob.WithInterval(12*time.Hour),
+			cronjob.WithLogger(slog.Default()),
+		)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error creating ClearOrphanedTempFiles job: %w", err)
+		}
+		cjs = append(cjs, cj)
+	}
+
+	return cjs, nil
 }

 type FileCleanupJobs struct {
@@ -91,7 +110,7 @@ func (j *FileCleanupJobs) clearUnusedDefaultProfilePictures(ctx context.Context)
 func (j *FileCleanupJobs) clearOrphanedTempFiles(ctx context.Context) error {
 	const minAge = 10 * time.Minute

-	var deleted int
+	deleted := 0
 	err := j.fileStorage.Walk(ctx, "/", func(p storage.ObjectInfo) error {
 		// Only temp files
 		if !strings.HasSuffix(p.Path, "-tmp") {
@@ -110,7 +129,6 @@ func (j *FileCleanupJobs) clearOrphanedTempFiles(ctx context.Context) error {
 		deleted++
 		return nil
 	})
-
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to scan storage: %w", err)
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/job/ldap_job.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/ldap_job.go
@@ -2,17 +2,19 @@ package job

 import (
 	"context"
+	"fmt"
 	"time"

+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 )

 type LdapJobs struct {
 	ldapService      *service.LdapService
-	appConfigService *service.AppConfigService
+	appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService
 }

-func (s *Scheduler) RegisterLdapJobs(ctx context.Context, ldapService *service.LdapService, appConfigService *service.AppConfigService) error {
+func (s *Scheduler) RegisterLdapJobs(ctx context.Context, ldapService *service.LdapService, appConfigService *appconfig.AppConfigService) error {
 	jobs := &LdapJobs{ldapService: ldapService, appConfigService: appConfigService}

 	// Register the job to run every hour (with some jitter)
@@ -20,7 +22,12 @@ func (s *Scheduler) RegisterLdapJobs(ctx context.Context, ldapService *service.L
 }

 func (j *LdapJobs) syncLdap(ctx context.Context) error {
-	if !j.appConfigService.GetDbConfig().LdapEnabled.IsTrue() {
+	dbConfig, err := j.appConfigService.GetConfig(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error load app config: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	if !dbConfig.LdapEnabled.IsTrue() {
 		return nil
 	}

--- a/backend/internal/job/scheduler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/job/scheduler.go
@@ -10,8 +10,10 @@ import (
 	backoff "github.com/cenkalti/backoff/v5"
 	"github.com/go-co-op/gocron/v2"
 	"github.com/google/uuid"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace"

 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/tracing"
 )

 type Scheduler struct {
@@ -65,52 +67,17 @@ func (s *Scheduler) Run(ctx context.Context) error {
 }

 func (s *Scheduler) RegisterJob(ctx context.Context, name string, def gocron.JobDefinition, jobFn func(ctx context.Context) error, opts service.RegisterJobOpts) error {
+	// Wrap the job in a handler that adds tracing and logging
+	jobFn = jobWithObservability(name, jobFn)
+
 	// If a BackOff strategy is provided, wrap the job with retry logic
 	if opts.BackOff != nil {
-		origJob := jobFn
-		jobFn = func(ctx context.Context) error {
-			_, err := backoff.Retry(
-				ctx,
-				func() (struct{}, error) {
-					return struct{}{}, origJob(ctx)
-				},
-				backoff.WithBackOff(opts.BackOff),
-				backoff.WithNotify(func(err error, d time.Duration) {
-					slog.WarnContext(ctx, "Job failed, retrying",
-						slog.String("name", name),
-						slog.Any("error", err),
-						slog.Duration("retryIn", d),
-					)
-				}),
-			)
-			return err
-		}
+		jobFn = jobWithBackOff(jobFn, opts.BackOff)
 	}

 	jobOptions := []gocron.JobOption{
 		gocron.WithContext(ctx),
 		gocron.WithName(name),
-		gocron.WithEventListeners(
-			gocron.BeforeJobRuns(func(jobID uuid.UUID, jobName string) {
-				slog.Info("Starting job",
-					slog.String("name", name),
-					slog.String("id", jobID.String()),
-				)
-			}),
-			gocron.AfterJobRuns(func(jobID uuid.UUID, jobName string) {
-				slog.Info("Job run successfully",
-					slog.String("name", name),
-					slog.String("id", jobID.String()),
-				)
-			}),
-			gocron.AfterJobRunsWithError(func(jobID uuid.UUID, jobName string, err error) {
-				slog.Error("Job failed with error",
-					slog.String("name", name),
-					slog.String("id", jobID.String()),
-					slog.Any("error", err),
-				)
-			}),
-		),
 	}

 	if opts.RunImmediately {
@@ -120,7 +87,6 @@ func (s *Scheduler) RegisterJob(ctx context.Context, name string, def gocron.Job
 	jobOptions = append(jobOptions, opts.ExtraOptions...)

 	_, err := s.scheduler.NewJob(def, gocron.NewTask(jobFn), jobOptions...)
-
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to register job %q: %w", name, err)
 	}
@@ -128,6 +94,76 @@ func (s *Scheduler) RegisterJob(ctx context.Context, name string, def gocron.Job
 	return nil
 }

+type (
+	jobNameKey struct{}
+	jobIDKey   struct{}
+	jobFn      = func(ctx context.Context) error
+)
+
+func jobWithObservability(jobName string, job jobFn) jobFn {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		// Generate a random job ID
+		jobID := uuid.NewString()
+
+		// Save in the context
+		ctx = context.WithValue(ctx, jobNameKey{}, jobName)
+		ctx = context.WithValue(ctx, jobIDKey{}, jobID)
+
+		// Create a new context with the span
+		var err error
+		ctx, span := tracing.Start(ctx, "pocketid.job."+jobName,
+			trace.WithSpanKind(trace.SpanKindInternal),
+			trace.WithAttributes(
+				tracing.JobID(jobID),
+			),
+		)
+		defer tracing.End(span, err)
+
+		// Log the start
+		logger := slog.With(
+			slog.String("name", jobName),
+			slog.String("jobID", jobID),
+		)
+		start := time.Now()
+		logger.InfoContext(ctx, "Starting job")
+
+		// Run the job
+		err = job(ctx)
+		d := time.Since(start)
+		if err != nil {
+			logger.ErrorContext(ctx, "Job failed", slog.Any("error", err), slog.Duration("duration", d))
+			return err
+		}
+
+		logger.InfoContext(ctx, "Job run successfully", slog.Duration("duration", d))
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func jobWithBackOff(job jobFn, bo backoff.BackOff) jobFn {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		jobName, _ := (ctx.Value(jobNameKey{})).(string)
+		jobID, _ := (ctx.Value(jobIDKey{})).(string)
+
+		_, err := backoff.Retry(
+			ctx,
+			func() (struct{}, error) {
+				return struct{}{}, job(ctx)
+			},
+			backoff.WithBackOff(bo),
+			backoff.WithNotify(func(err error, d time.Duration) {
+				slog.WarnContext(ctx, "Job failed, retrying",
+					slog.String("name", jobName),
+					slog.String("jobID", jobID),
+					slog.Any("error", err),
+					slog.Duration("retryIn", d),
+				)
+			}),
+		)
+		return err
+	}
+}
+
 func jobDefWithJitter(interval time.Duration) gocron.JobDefinition {
 	const jitter = 5 * time.Minute

--- a/backend/internal/middleware/api_key_auth.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/api_key_auth.go
@@ -2,19 +2,20 @@ package middleware

 import (
 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/apikey"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 )

 type ApiKeyAuthMiddleware struct {
-	apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService
-	jwtService    *service.JwtService
+	apiKeyModule *apikey.Module
+	jwtService   *service.JwtService
 }

-func NewApiKeyAuthMiddleware(apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService, jwtService *service.JwtService) *ApiKeyAuthMiddleware {
+func NewApiKeyAuthMiddleware(apiKeyModule *apikey.Module, jwtService *service.JwtService) *ApiKeyAuthMiddleware {
 	return &ApiKeyAuthMiddleware{
-		apiKeyService: apiKeyService,
-		jwtService:    jwtService,
+		apiKeyModule: apiKeyModule,
+		jwtService:   jwtService,
 	}
 }

@@ -36,7 +37,7 @@ func (m *ApiKeyAuthMiddleware) Add(adminRequired bool) gin.HandlerFunc {
 func (m *ApiKeyAuthMiddleware) Verify(c *gin.Context, adminRequired bool) (userID string, isAdmin bool, err error) {
 	apiKey := c.GetHeader("X-API-Key")

-	user, err := m.apiKeyService.ValidateApiKey(c.Request.Context(), apiKey)
+	user, err := m.apiKeyModule.ValidateApiKey(c.Request.Context(), apiKey)
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", false, &common.NotSignedInError{}
 	}
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/auth_middleware.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/auth_middleware.go
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/apikey"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
 )
@@ -22,12 +23,12 @@ type AuthOptions struct {
 }

 func NewAuthMiddleware(
-	apiKeyService *service.ApiKeyService,
+	apiKeyModule *apikey.Module,
 	userService *service.UserService,
 	jwtService *service.JwtService,
 ) *AuthMiddleware {
 	return &AuthMiddleware{
-		apiKeyMiddleware: NewApiKeyAuthMiddleware(apiKeyService, jwtService),
+		apiKeyMiddleware: NewApiKeyAuthMiddleware(apiKeyModule, jwtService),
 		jwtMiddleware:    NewJwtAuthMiddleware(jwtService, userService),
 		options: AuthOptions{
 			AdminRequired:   true,
@@ -74,11 +75,12 @@ func (m *AuthMiddleware) WithApiKeyAuthDisabled() *AuthMiddleware {

 func (m *AuthMiddleware) Add() gin.HandlerFunc {
 	return func(c *gin.Context) {
-		userID, isAdmin, authenticationMethod, err := m.jwtMiddleware.Verify(c, m.options.AdminRequired)
+		userID, isAdmin, authenticationMethod, authenticationTime, err := m.jwtMiddleware.Verify(c, m.options.AdminRequired)
 		if err == nil {
 			c.Set("userID", userID)
 			c.Set("userIsAdmin", isAdmin)
 			c.Set("authenticationMethod", authenticationMethod)
+			c.Set("authenticationTime", authenticationTime)
 			if c.IsAborted() {
 				return
 			}
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/auth_middleware_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/auth_middleware_test.go
@@ -11,11 +11,14 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 	"gorm.io/gorm"

+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/apikey"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/appconfig"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/dto"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/instanceid"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model"
 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/service"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 	testutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
 )

@@ -31,27 +34,32 @@ func TestWithApiKeyAuthDisabled(t *testing.T) {

 	db := testutils.NewDatabaseForTest(t)

-	appConfigService, err := service.NewAppConfigService(t.Context(), db)
+	appConfigService := appconfig.NewTestAppConfigService(nil)
+
+	instanceID, err := instanceid.Load(t.Context(), db)
 	require.NoError(t, err)

-	jwtService, err := service.NewJwtService(t.Context(), db, appConfigService)
+	jwtService, err := service.NewJwtService(t.Context(), db, instanceID, appConfigService)
 	require.NoError(t, err)

 	userService := service.NewUserService(db, jwtService, nil, nil, appConfigService, nil, nil, nil, nil)
-	apiKeyService, err := service.NewApiKeyService(t.Context(), db, nil)
+	apiKeyModule, err := apikey.New(t.Context(), apikey.Dependencies{DB: db})
 	require.NoError(t, err)

-	authMiddleware := NewAuthMiddleware(apiKeyService, userService, jwtService)
+	authMiddleware := NewAuthMiddleware(apiKeyModule, userService, jwtService)

 	user := createUserForAuthMiddlewareTest(t, db)
-	jwtToken, err := jwtService.GenerateAccessToken(user, "")
+	jwtToken, err := jwtService.GenerateAccessToken(user, "", time.Hour)
 	require.NoError(t, err)

-	_, apiKeyToken, err := apiKeyService.CreateApiKey(t.Context(), user.ID, dto.ApiKeyCreateDto{
+	apiKeyToken := "middleware-test-api-key-raw-token"
+	apiKeyRecord := apikey.ApiKey{
 		Name:      "Middleware API Key",
+		Key:       utils.CreateSha256Hash(apiKeyToken),
+		UserID:    user.ID,
 		ExpiresAt: datatype.DateTime(time.Now().Add(24 * time.Hour)),
-	})
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, db.Create(&apiKeyRecord).Error)

 	router := gin.New()
 	router.Use(NewErrorHandlerMiddleware().Add())
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/cors.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/cors.go
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ func isCorsPath(path string) bool {
 	switch path {
 	case "/api/oidc/token",
 		"/api/oidc/userinfo",
-		"/oidc/end-session",
+		"/api/oidc/end-session",
 		"/api/oidc/introspect",
 		"/.well-known/jwks.json",
 		"/.well-known/openid-configuration":
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/csp_middleware.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/csp_middleware.go
@@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 package middleware

 import (
-	"crypto/rand"
-	"encoding/base64"
-	"strings"
-
 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 )

 // CspMiddleware sets a Content Security Policy header and, when possible,
@@ -16,56 +13,16 @@ func NewCspMiddleware() *CspMiddleware { return &CspMiddleware{} }

 // GetCSPNonce returns the CSP nonce generated for this request, if any.
 func GetCSPNonce(c *gin.Context) string {
-	if v, ok := c.Get("csp_nonce"); ok {
-		if s, ok := v.(string); ok {
-			return s
-		}
-	}
-	return ""
+	return utils.GetCSPNonce(c)
 }

 func (m *CspMiddleware) Add() gin.HandlerFunc {
 	return func(c *gin.Context) {
 		// Generate a random base64 nonce for this request
-		nonce := generateNonce()
-		c.Set("csp_nonce", nonce)
-		c.Writer.Header().Set("Content-Security-Policy", BuildCSP(nonce))
+		nonce := utils.GenerateCSPNonce()
+		utils.SetCSPNonce(c, nonce)
+		c.Writer.Header().Set("Content-Security-Policy", utils.BuildCSP(nonce))

 		c.Next()
 	}
 }
-
-func BuildCSP(nonce string, formActionExtra ...string) string {
-	formAction := "'self'"
-
-	if len(formActionExtra) > 0 {
-		b := strings.Builder{}
-
-		for _, extra := range formActionExtra {
-			if extra != "" {
-				b.WriteByte(' ')
-				b.WriteString(extra)
-			}
-		}
-
-		formAction += b.String()
-	}
-
-	return "default-src 'self'; " +
-		"base-uri 'self'; " +
-		"object-src 'none'; " +
-		"frame-ancestors 'none'; " +
-		"form-action " + formAction + "; " +
-		"img-src * blob:;" +
-		"font-src 'self'; " +
-		"style-src 'self' 'unsafe-inline'; " +
-		"script-src 'self' 'nonce-" + nonce + "'"
-}
-
-func generateNonce() string {
-	b := make([]byte, 16)
-	if _, err := rand.Read(b); err != nil {
-		return "" // if generation fails, return empty; policy will omit nonce
-	}
-	return base64.RawURLEncoding.EncodeToString(b)
-}
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/csp_middleware_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/csp_middleware_test.go
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-package middleware
-
-import (
-	"strings"
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
-)
-
-func TestBuildCSP(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Run("uses self form action by default", func(t *testing.T) {
-		csp := BuildCSP("test-nonce")
-
-		assert.Contains(t, csp, "form-action 'self';")
-		assert.Contains(t, csp, "script-src 'self' 'nonce-test-nonce'")
-	})
-
-	t.Run("adds validated form action targets", func(t *testing.T) {
-		csp := BuildCSP("test-nonce", "https://example.com/callback")
-
-		assert.Contains(t, csp, "form-action 'self' https://example.com/callback;")
-		assert.Equal(t, 1, strings.Count(csp, "form-action"))
-	})
-}
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/error_handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/error_handler.go
@@ -105,6 +105,8 @@ func handleValidationError(validationErrors validator.ValidationErrors) string {
 			errorMessage = fmt.Sprintf("%s must only contain letters, numbers, underscores, dots, hyphens, and '@' symbols and not start or end with a special character", fieldName)
 		case "url":
 			errorMessage = fmt.Sprintf("%s must be a valid URL", fieldName)
+		case "resource_uri":
+			errorMessage = fmt.Sprintf("%s must be an absolute URI without whitespace or a fragment", fieldName)
 		case "min":
 			errorMessage = fmt.Sprintf("%s must be at least %s characters long", fieldName, ve.Param())
 		case "max":
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/jwt_auth.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/jwt_auth.go
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package middleware

 import (
 	"strings"
+	"time"

 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
@@ -20,7 +21,7 @@ func NewJwtAuthMiddleware(jwtService *service.JwtService, userService *service.U

 func (m *JwtAuthMiddleware) Add(adminRequired bool) gin.HandlerFunc {
 	return func(c *gin.Context) {
-		userID, isAdmin, authenticationMethod, err := m.Verify(c, adminRequired)
+		userID, isAdmin, authenticationMethod, authenticationTime, err := m.Verify(c, adminRequired)
 		if err != nil {
 			c.Abort()
 			_ = c.Error(err)
@@ -30,11 +31,12 @@ func (m *JwtAuthMiddleware) Add(adminRequired bool) gin.HandlerFunc {
 		c.Set("userID", userID)
 		c.Set("userIsAdmin", isAdmin)
 		c.Set("authenticationMethod", authenticationMethod)
+		c.Set("authenticationTime", authenticationTime)
 		c.Next()
 	}
 }

-func (m *JwtAuthMiddleware) Verify(c *gin.Context, adminRequired bool) (subject string, isAdmin bool, authenticationMethod string, err error) {
+func (m *JwtAuthMiddleware) Verify(c *gin.Context, adminRequired bool) (subject string, isAdmin bool, authenticationMethod string, authenticationTime time.Time, err error) {
 	// Extract the token from the cookie
 	accessToken, err := c.Cookie(cookie.AccessTokenCookieName)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -42,37 +44,38 @@ func (m *JwtAuthMiddleware) Verify(c *gin.Context, adminRequired bool) (subject
 		var ok bool
 		_, accessToken, ok = strings.Cut(c.GetHeader("Authorization"), " ")
 		if !ok || accessToken == "" {
-			return "", false, "", &common.NotSignedInError{}
+			return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.NotSignedInError{}
 		}
 	}

 	token, err := m.jwtService.VerifyAccessToken(accessToken)
 	if err != nil {
-		return "", false, "", &common.NotSignedInError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.NotSignedInError{}
 	}
-	authenticationMethod, err = service.GetAuthenticationMethod(token)
+	authenticationMethod, err = m.jwtService.GetAuthenticationMethod(token)
 	if err != nil {
-		return "", false, "", &common.NotSignedInError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.NotSignedInError{}
 	}
+	authenticationTime, _ = token.IssuedAt()

 	subject, ok := token.Subject()
 	if !ok {
 		_ = c.Error(&common.TokenInvalidError{})
-		return "", false, "", &common.TokenInvalidError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.TokenInvalidError{}
 	}

 	user, err := m.userService.GetUser(c, subject)
 	if err != nil {
-		return "", false, "", &common.NotSignedInError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.NotSignedInError{}
 	}

 	if user.Disabled {
-		return "", false, "", &common.UserDisabledError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.UserDisabledError{}
 	}

 	if adminRequired && !user.IsAdmin {
-		return "", false, "", &common.MissingPermissionError{}
+		return "", false, "", time.Time{}, &common.MissingPermissionError{}
 	}

-	return subject, user.IsAdmin, authenticationMethod, nil
+	return subject, user.IsAdmin, authenticationMethod, authenticationTime, nil
 }
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/rate_limit.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/rate_limit.go
@@ -1,47 +1,116 @@
 package middleware

 import (
-	"sync"
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"log/slog"
+	"math"
+	"net"
+	"net/http"
+	"strconv"
 	"time"

-	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
-
 	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
-	"golang.org/x/time/rate"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/ratelimit"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
 )

-type RateLimitMiddleware struct{}
+// Rate-limit policy names
+// Each constant names a limiter registered on the actor host and is the value passed to Add to select that limiter
+const (
+	RateLimitAPI                    = "api"
+	RateLimitSignup                 = "signup"
+	RateLimitWebauthnLogin          = "webauthn-login"
+	RateLimitWebauthnReauthenticate = "webauthn-reauthenticate"
+	RateLimitOneTimeAccessToken     = "one-time-access-token"
+	RateLimitOneTimeAccessEmail     = "one-time-access-email"
+	RateLimitSendEmailVerification  = "send-email-verification"
+	RateLimitVerifyEmail            = "verify-email"
+	RateLimitInternal               = "internal"
+)

-func NewRateLimitMiddleware() *RateLimitMiddleware {
-	return &RateLimitMiddleware{}
+// RateLimitPolicy is the configuration for a single rate-limit actor
+// Each policy maps to one Francis rate-limit actor type and requests are keyed by client IP, so every IP is limited independently and per-route limits stay isolated from each other
+type RateLimitPolicy struct {
+	// Name must be unique across policies and must not contain '/'
+	Name string
+	// Rate is the number of calls admitted per Per window
+	Rate int
+	// Per is the window the rate applies over
+	Per time.Duration
+	// Burst is the token bucket's capacity, i.e. how many calls may be admitted instantly before throttling kicks in
+	Burst int
 }

-func (m *RateLimitMiddleware) Add(limit rate.Limit, burst int) gin.HandlerFunc {
+// RateLimitPolicies returns the configuration for every rate-limit policy
+// The slice is built on each call so the policies are not retained at the package level, and the actor host registers one limiter per entry
+func RateLimitPolicies() []RateLimitPolicy {
+	return []RateLimitPolicy{
+		{Name: RateLimitAPI, Rate: 100, Per: time.Second, Burst: 300},
+		{Name: RateLimitSignup, Rate: 2, Per: time.Minute, Burst: 10},
+		{Name: RateLimitWebauthnLogin, Rate: 1, Per: 5 * time.Second, Burst: 10},
+		{Name: RateLimitWebauthnReauthenticate, Rate: 1, Per: 10 * time.Second, Burst: 5},
+		{Name: RateLimitOneTimeAccessToken, Rate: 1, Per: 10 * time.Second, Burst: 5},
+		{Name: RateLimitOneTimeAccessEmail, Rate: 2, Per: 10 * time.Minute, Burst: 5},
+		{Name: RateLimitSendEmailVerification, Rate: 2, Per: 10 * time.Minute, Burst: 1},
+		{Name: RateLimitVerifyEmail, Rate: 1, Per: 10 * time.Second, Burst: 5},
+		{Name: RateLimitInternal, Rate: 20, Per: time.Second, Burst: 20},
+	}
+}
+
+type RateLimitMiddleware struct {
+	services map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService
+}
+
+func NewRateLimitMiddleware(services map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService) *RateLimitMiddleware {
+	return &RateLimitMiddleware{
+		services: services,
+	}
+}
+
+func (m *RateLimitMiddleware) Add(policy string) gin.HandlerFunc {
 	if common.EnvConfig.DisableRateLimiting {
 		return func(c *gin.Context) {
 			c.Next()
 		}
 	}

-	// Map to store the rate limiters per IP
-	var clients = make(map[string]*client)
-	var mu sync.Mutex
-
-	// Start the cleanup routine
-	go cleanupClients(&mu, clients)
+	// A missing service means the policy was never registered on the actor host, which is a development-time errror
+	svc := m.services[policy]
+	if svc == nil {
+		return func(c *gin.Context) {
+			c.AbortWithStatus(http.StatusInternalServerError)
+		}
+	}

 	return func(c *gin.Context) {
 		ip := c.ClientIP()

 		// Skip rate limiting for localhost and test environment
 		// If the client ip is localhost the request comes from the frontend
-		if ip == "" || ip == "127.0.0.1" || ip == "::1" || common.EnvConfig.AppEnv.IsTest() {
+		if common.EnvConfig.AppEnv == common.AppEnvTest || net.ParseIP(ip).IsLoopback() {
 			c.Next()
 			return
 		}

-		limiter := getLimiter(ip, limit, burst, &mu, clients)
-		if !limiter.Allow() {
+		// Allow is a non-blocking token-bucket check keyed by client IP: it consumes a slot and reports whether the call is admitted right now
+		allowed, retryAfter, err := svc.Allow(c.Request.Context(), ip)
+		if err != nil {
+			// Fail open so a limiter error does not turn away otherwise-valid traffic
+			if !errors.Is(err, context.Canceled) {
+				// A cancelled context just means the client went away, so it is not worth logging
+				slog.WarnContext(c.Request.Context(), "Rate limiter unavailable, allowing request", slog.String("policy", policy), slog.Any("error", err))
+			}
+			c.Next()
+			return
+		}
+
+		if !allowed {
+			// Advertise when the caller may retry, mapping the limiter's delay onto a Retry-After header
+			if retryAfter > 0 {
+				c.Header("Retry-After", strconv.Itoa(int(math.Ceil(retryAfter.Seconds()))))
+			}
 			_ = c.Error(&common.TooManyRequestsError{})
 			c.Abort()
 			return
@@ -50,37 +119,3 @@ func (m *RateLimitMiddleware) Add(limit rate.Limit, burst int) gin.HandlerFunc {
 		c.Next()
 	}
 }
-
-type client struct {
-	limiter  *rate.Limiter
-	lastSeen time.Time
-}
-
-// Cleanup routine to remove stale clients that haven't been seen for a while
-func cleanupClients(mu *sync.Mutex, clients map[string]*client) {
-	for {
-		time.Sleep(time.Minute)
-		mu.Lock()
-		for ip, client := range clients {
-			if time.Since(client.lastSeen) > 3*time.Minute {
-				delete(clients, ip)
-			}
-		}
-		mu.Unlock()
-	}
-}
-
-// getLimiter retrieves the rate limiter for a given IP address, creating one if it doesn't exist
-func getLimiter(ip string, limit rate.Limit, burst int, mu *sync.Mutex, clients map[string]*client) *rate.Limiter {
-	mu.Lock()
-	defer mu.Unlock()
-
-	if client, exists := clients[ip]; exists {
-		client.lastSeen = time.Now()
-		return client.limiter
-	}
-
-	limiter := rate.NewLimiter(limit, burst)
-	clients[ip] = &client{limiter: limiter, lastSeen: time.Now()}
-	return limiter
-}
--- a/backend/internal/middleware/rate_limit_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/middleware/rate_limit_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+package middleware
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"net"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/builtin/ratelimit"
+	"github.com/italypaleale/francis/host/local"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/common"
+	testutils "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils/testing"
+)
+
+// startRateLimitServices registers one rate-limit actor per policy on an in-memory test actor host and returns the bound services keyed by policy name
+func startRateLimitServices(t *testing.T, policies ...RateLimitPolicy) map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	limiters := make(map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimit, len(policies))
+	h := testutils.NewActorHostForTest(t, func(t *testing.T, h *local.Host) {
+		for _, p := range policies {
+			rl, err := ratelimit.New(p.Name, ratelimit.WithRate(p.Rate), ratelimit.WithPer(p.Per), ratelimit.WithBurst(p.Burst))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			limiters[p.Name] = rl
+
+			err = h.RegisterBuiltInActor(rl)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+		}
+	})
+
+	services := make(map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService, len(limiters))
+	svc := h.Service()
+	for name, rl := range limiters {
+		services[name] = rl.Service(svc)
+	}
+
+	return services
+}
+
+// newRateLimitRouter builds a gin engine that runs the rate-limit middleware for the given policy on GET /test
+// Trusted proxies are disabled so ClientIP resolves to the request's RemoteAddr, and the error handler turns the middleware's error into a 429 response
+func newRateLimitRouter(t *testing.T, services map[string]*ratelimit.RateLimitService, policy string) *gin.Engine {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	r := gin.New()
+
+	err := r.SetTrustedProxies(nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	r.Use(NewErrorHandlerMiddleware().Add())
+
+	mw := NewRateLimitMiddleware(services)
+	r.GET("/test", mw.Add(policy), func(c *gin.Context) {
+		c.String(http.StatusOK, "ok")
+	})
+
+	return r
+}
+
+// doRateLimitRequest sends a GET /test request as the given client IP and returns the response recorder
+func doRateLimitRequest(ctx context.Context, r *gin.Engine, ip string) *httptest.ResponseRecorder {
+	req := httptest.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodGet, "/test", nil)
+	req.RemoteAddr = net.JoinHostPort(ip, "12345")
+	w := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	r.ServeHTTP(w, req)
+	return w
+}
+
+func TestRateLimitMiddleware(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+
+	// The middleware reads the global config, so restore it after the test
+	originalEnvConfig := common.EnvConfig
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		common.EnvConfig = originalEnvConfig
+	})
+
+	common.EnvConfig.AppEnv = common.AppEnvProduction
+	common.EnvConfig.DisableRateLimiting = false
+
+	// A slow refill (one token per hour) with a burst of 2 means the first two calls for a key are admitted and the third is rejected, with no refill during the test
+	const policy = "test-limit"
+	services := startRateLimitServices(t, RateLimitPolicy{Name: policy, Rate: 1, Per: time.Hour, Burst: 2})
+
+	t.Run("rejects requests over the limit and sets Retry-After", func(t *testing.T) {
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, policy)
+		const ip = "203.0.113.1"
+
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, ip).Code)
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, ip).Code)
+
+		w := doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, ip)
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusTooManyRequests, w.Code)
+		assert.NotEmpty(t, w.Header().Get("Retry-After"), "a throttled response should advertise Retry-After")
+	})
+
+	t.Run("limits each client IP independently", func(t *testing.T) {
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, policy)
+
+		// Exhaust the budget for the first IP
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.2").Code)
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.2").Code)
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusTooManyRequests, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.2").Code)
+
+		// A different IP still has its full budget
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.3").Code)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("allows all requests when rate limiting is disabled", func(t *testing.T) {
+		common.EnvConfig.DisableRateLimiting = true
+		t.Cleanup(func() { common.EnvConfig.DisableRateLimiting = false })
+
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, policy)
+		for range 5 {
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.4").Code)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("skips rate limiting for loopback addresses", func(t *testing.T) {
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, policy)
+		for _, ip := range []string{"127.0.0.1", "::1"} {
+			for range 5 {
+				require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, ip).Code)
+			}
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("skips rate limiting in the test environment", func(t *testing.T) {
+		common.EnvConfig.AppEnv = common.AppEnvTest
+		t.Cleanup(func() { common.EnvConfig.AppEnv = common.AppEnvProduction })
+
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, policy)
+		for range 5 {
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.5").Code)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("fails with 500 when the policy is not registered", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// An unknown policy has no bound service, which is a configuration error surfaced as a 500
+		r := newRateLimitRouter(t, services, "does-not-exist")
+		require.Equal(t, http.StatusInternalServerError, doRateLimitRequest(t.Context(), r, "203.0.113.6").Code)
+	})
+}
--- a/backend/internal/model/app_config.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/app_config.go
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"reflect"
-	"slices"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
@@ -44,8 +43,6 @@ type AppConfig struct {
 	AllowUserSignups          AppConfigVariable `key:"allowUserSignups,public"`    // Public
 	SignupDefaultUserGroupIDs AppConfigVariable `key:"signupDefaultUserGroupIDs"`
 	SignupDefaultCustomClaims AppConfigVariable `key:"signupDefaultCustomClaims"`
-	// Internal
-	InstanceID AppConfigVariable `key:"instanceId,internal"` // Internal
 	// Email
 	RequireUserEmail                           AppConfigVariable `key:"requireUserEmail,public"` // Public
 	SmtpHost                                   AppConfigVariable `key:"smtpHost"`
@@ -88,7 +85,7 @@ func (c *AppConfig) ToAppConfigVariableSlice(showAll bool, redactSensitiveValues
 	cfgValue := reflect.ValueOf(c).Elem()
 	cfgType := cfgValue.Type()

-	var res []AppConfigVariable
+	res := make([]AppConfigVariable, 0, cfgType.NumField())

 	for i := range cfgType.NumField() {
 		field := cfgType.Field(i)
@@ -121,7 +118,7 @@ func (c *AppConfig) ToAppConfigVariableSlice(showAll bool, redactSensitiveValues
 	return res
 }

-func (c *AppConfig) FieldByKey(key string) (defaultValue string, isInternal bool, err error) {
+func (c *AppConfig) FieldByKey(key string) (defaultValue string, err error) {
 	rv := reflect.ValueOf(c).Elem()
 	rt := rv.Type()

@@ -130,36 +127,30 @@ func (c *AppConfig) FieldByKey(key string) (defaultValue string, isInternal bool
 		// Grab only the first part of the key, if there's a comma with additional properties
 		tagValue := strings.Split(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("key"), ",")
 		keyFromTag := tagValue[0]
-		isInternal = slices.Contains(tagValue, "internal")
 		if keyFromTag != key {
 			continue
 		}

 		valueField := rv.Field(i).FieldByName("Value")
-		return valueField.String(), isInternal, nil
+		return valueField.String(), nil
 	}

 	// If we are here, the config key was not found
-	return "", false, AppConfigKeyNotFoundError{field: key}
+	return "", AppConfigKeyNotFoundError{field: key}
 }

-func (c *AppConfig) UpdateField(key string, value string, noInternal bool) error {
+func (c *AppConfig) UpdateField(key string, value string) error {
 	rv := reflect.ValueOf(c).Elem()
 	rt := rv.Type()

 	// Find the field in the struct whose "key" tag matches, then update that
 	for i := range rt.NumField() {
 		// Separate the key (before the comma) from any optional attributes after
-		tagValue, attrs, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("key"), ",")
+		tagValue, _, _ := strings.Cut(rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("key"), ",")
 		if tagValue != key {
 			continue
 		}

-		// If the field is internal and noInternal is true, we skip that
-		if noInternal && attrs == "internal" {
-			return AppConfigInternalForbiddenError{field: key}
-		}
-
 		valueField := rv.Field(i).FieldByName("Value")
 		if !valueField.CanSet() {
 			return fmt.Errorf("field Value in AppConfigVariable is not settable for config key '%s'", key)
@@ -186,20 +177,6 @@ func (e AppConfigKeyNotFoundError) Error() string {

 func (e AppConfigKeyNotFoundError) Is(target error) bool {
 	// Ignore the field property when checking if an error is of the type AppConfigKeyNotFoundError
-	x := AppConfigKeyNotFoundError{}
-	return errors.As(target, &x)
-}
-
-type AppConfigInternalForbiddenError struct {
-	field string
-}
-
-func (e AppConfigInternalForbiddenError) Error() string {
-	return "field '" + e.field + "' is internal and can't be updated"
-}
-
-func (e AppConfigInternalForbiddenError) Is(target error) bool {
-	// Ignore the field property when checking if an error is of the type AppConfigInternalForbiddenError
-	x := AppConfigInternalForbiddenError{}
-	return errors.As(target, &x)
+	_, ok := errors.AsType[*AppConfigKeyNotFoundError](target)
+	return ok
 }
--- a/backend/internal/model/app_config_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/app_config_test.go
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ func TestAppConfigStructMatchesUpdateDto(t *testing.T) {

 	// Verify every AppConfig field has a matching DTO field with the same name
 	for fieldName, keyName := range appConfigFields {
-		if strings.HasSuffix(fieldName, "ImageType") || keyName == "instanceId" {
+		if strings.HasSuffix(fieldName, "ImageType") {
 			// Skip internal fields that shouldn't be in the DTO
 			continue
 		}
--- a/backend/internal/model/oidc.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/oidc.go
@@ -3,14 +3,13 @@ package model
 import (
 	"database/sql/driver"
 	"encoding/json"
-	"strings"

 	datatype "github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/model/types"
 	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
 )

 type UserAuthorizedOidcClient struct {
-	Scope      string
+	Scope      datatype.StringList
 	LastUsedAt datatype.DateTime `sortable:"true"`

 	UserID string `gorm:"primary_key;"`
@@ -20,35 +19,11 @@ type UserAuthorizedOidcClient struct {
 	Client   OidcClient
 }

-func (c UserAuthorizedOidcClient) Scopes() []string {
-	if len(c.Scope) == 0 {
-		return []string{}
-	}
-
-	return strings.Split(c.Scope, " ")
-}
-
-type OidcAuthorizationCode struct {
-	Base
-
-	Code                      string
-	Scope                     string
-	AuthenticationMethod      string
-	Nonce                     string
-	CodeChallenge             *string
-	CodeChallengeMethodSha256 *bool
-	ExpiresAt                 datatype.DateTime
-
-	UserID string
-	User   User
-
-	ClientID string
-}
-
 type OidcClient struct {
 	Base

 	Name                                string `sortable:"true"`
+	Description                         string
 	Secret                              string
 	CallbackURLs                        UrlList
 	LogoutCallbackURLs                  UrlList
@@ -58,9 +33,11 @@ type OidcClient struct {
 	PkceEnabled                         bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`
 	RequiresReauthentication            bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`
 	RequiresPushedAuthorizationRequests bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`
+	SkipConsent                         bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`
 	Credentials                         OidcClientCredentials
 	LaunchURL                           *string
 	IsGroupRestricted                   bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`
+	PkceSupported                       bool `sortable:"true" filterable:"true"`

 	AllowedUserGroups         []UserGroup `gorm:"many2many:oidc_clients_allowed_user_groups;"`
 	CreatedByID               *string
@@ -76,39 +53,16 @@ func (c OidcClient) HasDarkLogo() bool {
 	return c.DarkImageType != nil && *c.DarkImageType != ""
 }

-type OidcRefreshToken struct {
-	Base
-
-	Token                string
-	IdTokenJti           *string
-	ExpiresAt            datatype.DateTime
-	Scope                string
-	AuthenticationMethod string
-
-	UserID string
-	User   User
-
-	ClientID string
-	Client   OidcClient
-}
-
-func (c OidcRefreshToken) Scopes() []string {
-	if len(c.Scope) == 0 {
-		return []string{}
-	}
-
-	return strings.Split(c.Scope, " ")
-}
-
 type OidcClientCredentials struct { //nolint:recvcheck
 	FederatedIdentities []OidcClientFederatedIdentity `json:"federatedIdentities,omitempty"`
 }

 type OidcClientFederatedIdentity struct {
-	Issuer   string `json:"issuer"`
-	Subject  string `json:"subject,omitempty"`
-	Audience string `json:"audience,omitempty"`
-	JWKS     string `json:"jwks,omitempty"` // URL of the JWKS
+	Issuer           string `json:"issuer"`
+	Subject          string `json:"subject,omitempty"`
+	Audience         string `json:"audience,omitempty"`
+	JWKS             string `json:"jwks,omitempty"` // URL of the JWKS
+	ReplayProtection bool   `json:"replayProtection,omitempty"`
 }

 func (occ OidcClientCredentials) FederatedIdentityForIssuer(issuer string) (OidcClientFederatedIdentity, bool) {
@@ -142,48 +96,3 @@ func (cu *UrlList) Scan(value any) error {
 func (cu UrlList) Value() (driver.Value, error) {
 	return json.Marshal(cu)
 }
-
-type OidcDeviceCode struct {
-	Base
-	DeviceCode           string
-	UserCode             string
-	Scope                string
-	AuthenticationMethod string
-	Nonce                string
-	ExpiresAt            datatype.DateTime
-	IsAuthorized         bool
-
-	UserID   *string
-	User     User
-	ClientID string
-	Client   OidcClient
-}
-
-type OidcPushedAuthorizationRequest struct {
-	Base
-
-	RequestURI string
-	ClientID   string
-	Parameters OidcAuthorizationRequestParameters
-	ExpiresAt  datatype.DateTime
-}
-
-type OidcAuthorizationRequestParameters struct { //nolint:recvcheck
-	Scope               string `json:"scope,omitempty"`
-	RedirectURI         string `json:"redirect_uri,omitempty"`
-	State               string `json:"state,omitempty"`
-	Nonce               string `json:"nonce,omitempty"`
-	CodeChallenge       string `json:"code_challenge,omitempty"`
-	CodeChallengeMethod string `json:"code_challenge_method,omitempty"`
-	ResponseType        string `json:"response_type,omitempty"`
-	Prompt              string `json:"prompt,omitempty"`
-	ResponseMode        string `json:"response_mode,omitempty"`
-}
-
-func (p *OidcAuthorizationRequestParameters) Scan(value any) error {
-	return utils.UnmarshalJSONFromDatabase(p, value)
-}
-
-func (p OidcAuthorizationRequestParameters) Value() (driver.Value, error) {
-	return json.Marshal(p)
-}
--- a/backend/internal/model/types/encrypted_string.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/types/encrypted_string.go
@@ -67,14 +67,17 @@ func (e EncryptedString) String() string {
 }

 // DeriveEncryptedStringKey derives a key for encrypting EncryptedString values from the master key.
+// Note: changing this function in any is considered a breaking change that will make all encrypted stored data irrecoverable.
 func DeriveEncryptedStringKey(master []byte) ([]byte, error) {
 	const info = "pocketid/encrypted_string"
 	r := hkdf.New(sha256.New, master, nil, []byte(info))

 	key := make([]byte, 32)
-	if _, err := io.ReadFull(r, key); err != nil {
+	_, err := io.ReadFull(r, key)
+	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
+
 	return key, nil
 }

--- a/backend/internal/model/types/encrypted_string_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/types/encrypted_string_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package datatype
+
+import (
+	"encoding/hex"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestDeriveEncryptedStringKeyUsesStableValue(t *testing.T) {
+	masterKey := []byte("test-encryption-key")
+
+	expectedHex := "8a08281e815dac248bd216b8ceff063c390f3515475909bfd4380ed640bd854e"
+	expected, err := hex.DecodeString(expectedHex)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	actual, err := DeriveEncryptedStringKey(masterKey)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, expected, actual)
+}
--- a/backend/internal/model/types/string_list.go
+++ b/backend/internal/model/types/string_list.go
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package datatype
+
+import (
+	"database/sql/driver"
+	"encoding/json"
+
+	"github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id/backend/internal/utils"
+)
+
+type StringList []string //nolint:recvcheck
+
+func (s *StringList) Scan(value any) error {
+	return utils.UnmarshalJSONFromDatabase(s, value)
+}
+
+func (s StringList) Value() (driver.Value, error) {
+	return json.Marshal(s)
+}
--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More
Author	SHA1	Message	Date
ItalyPaleAle	669834d2d3	More WIP	2026-07-14 08:59:08 -07:00
ItalyPaleAle	2b11164532	More WIP	2026-07-14 08:57:47 -07:00
ItalyPaleAle	1d2f991be5	More WIP	2026-07-13 07:13:00 -07:00
ItalyPaleAle	eac837fc22	Merge branch 'main' of https://github.com/pocket-id/pocket-id into actors/config	2026-07-13 06:22:24 -07:00
Elias Schneider	525946e94e	release: 2.11.0	2026-07-13 11:16:16 +02:00
Elias Schneider	bb03660bd7	ci/cd: remove low demand issue closer	2026-07-13 11:08:32 +02:00
Elias Schneider	9714296efb	fix: block link-local addresses in SSRF protection	2026-07-13 11:05:24 +02:00
Elias Schneider	a3f27ec2ec	fix: ignore tab URL hashes in navigation history	2026-07-13 10:52:01 +02:00
Elias Schneider	316cf47ceb	fix: `INTERNAL_APP_URL` not reflected in UI URLs	2026-07-13 10:51:24 +02:00
dependabot[bot]	ef9ed8de32	chore(deps): Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 3 updates across multiple ecosystems (#1578 ) Signed-off-by: dependabot[bot] <support@github.com> Co-authored-by: dependabot[bot] <49699333+dependabot[bot]@users.noreply.github.com> Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com>	2026-07-13 09:58:41 +02:00
James18232	217bf75b7c	fix: login code mobile ux (#1584 ) Co-authored-by: james <james@goldfish.net>	2026-07-13 09:52:57 +02:00
Elias Schneider	77398a558d	fix: sort signup tokens by creation date explicitly	2026-07-13 09:50:25 +02:00
Elias Schneider	187cd8ddcd	feat: add support for CIDR and IP address lists in `TRUST_PROXY`	2026-07-13 09:32:05 +02:00
Elias Schneider	d9ead47d19	fix: allow insecure callback URLs by default until next major release	2026-07-13 09:21:53 +02:00
Elias Schneider	7348bdac50	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1589 )	2026-07-12 12:48:39 -05:00
ItalyPaleAle	0f6ff76165	Add Replace and Update funtions to model	2026-07-11 16:00:16 -07:00
ItalyPaleAle	e4d0cbefbe	WIP	2026-07-11 12:19:04 -07:00
Elias Schneider	69a6e22c7c	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1577 )	2026-07-11 16:16:47 +02:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	cfda5f693b	refactor: manage instance ID in the KV table (#1579 )	2026-07-11 16:16:05 +02:00
Marco Scabbiolo	ff8e34cccf	fix: postgres migration 20250822 remove public schema references (#1582 ) Co-authored-by: Marco <marco.scabbiolo@redb.ee>	2026-07-11 16:11:07 +02:00
Elias Schneider	ff5e565eeb	docs: update README	2026-07-11 14:54:22 +02:00
Elias Schneider	20254eea7c	release: 2.10.0	2026-07-10 17:08:11 +02:00
Elias Schneider	f62d476c56	chore: upgrade go version	2026-07-10 16:58:27 +02:00
Elias Schneider	119eecefc3	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1573 )	2026-07-10 16:25:05 +02:00
Elias Schneider	59a6868ecd	refactor: run formatter	2026-07-10 15:57:17 +02:00
Elias Schneider	2910c517bb	fix: mobile layout improvements	2026-07-10 15:56:47 +02:00
Elias Schneider	da3677f33d	docs: fix wrong OpenAPI documentation	2026-07-10 15:44:28 +02:00
Elias Schneider	968d07229e	docs: add link to API docs	2026-07-10 15:38:29 +02:00
Elias Schneider	28a553f63b	feat: add tab bar navigation for crowded pages	2026-07-10 15:33:02 +02:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	b2711ced99	fix: /authorize endpoint crashes when list of scopes is empty (#1575 )	2026-07-08 17:48:32 -07:00
Sean McKenzie	6734585712	feat: add description field to oidc clients (#1547 ) Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com>	2026-07-08 13:41:51 +02:00
Elias Schneider	c85a4e63da	fix: disable one time access token exchange for disabled users	2026-07-08 12:04:16 +02:00
Elias Schneider	ce7d3a7e1d	tests(unit): fix wrong migration name	2026-07-08 11:51:43 +02:00
Elias Schneider	a5f2192d67	tests(e2e): fix migration version in `database.json`	2026-07-08 11:19:09 +02:00
Elias Schneider	190914fd72	refactor: remove duplicate fosite config properties	2026-07-08 11:01:50 +02:00
Elias Schneider	25dcad757a	feat: add support for unencrypted OIDC request parameter	2026-07-08 10:42:05 +02:00
Elias Schneider	c72da58eaf	refactor: rename migrations	2026-07-07 17:16:10 +02:00
Elias Schneider	f3b6ceb876	fix: add missing burst to rate limit	2026-07-07 14:01:26 +02:00
Elias Schneider	fa2d08cb6d	refactor: remove redundant dtos	2026-07-07 11:51:37 +02:00
Elias Schneider	2f55b7cbc3	fix: device authorization resolve resource creating device_code	2026-07-07 11:51:02 +02:00
Elias Schneider	8035a4c8d5	perf: include permissions in api list response	2026-07-07 11:38:59 +02:00
Elias Schneider	7667377c98	refactor: pass transaction to `resolveResource`	2026-07-07 11:14:19 +02:00
Elias Schneider	5e2cc6f40e	fix: merge requested scopes instead of replacing them	2026-07-07 11:03:06 +02:00
Elias Schneider	e8cb0c831c	fix: re-check api permissions on access token refresh	2026-07-07 10:58:39 +02:00
Elias Schneider	337fc6fd1e	chore: update Fosite version	2026-07-06 23:43:09 +02:00
Elias Schneider	590feadab9	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1569 )	2026-07-06 23:35:03 +02:00
Elias Schneider	9a94aa0694	refactor: move Pocket ID specific logic from Fosite into Pocket ID repo	2026-07-06 23:34:33 +02:00
Elias Schneider	34e9a6d198	fix: restore behavior that unknown scopes get ignored	2026-07-06 22:42:38 +02:00
Elias Schneider	6120bb4dd8	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1568 )	2026-07-06 22:24:03 +02:00
Elias Schneider	09d196f7c5	feat: add OAuth APIs with scoped permissions (#1542 ) Co-authored-by: Alessandro (Ale) Segala <43508+ItalyPaleAle@users.noreply.github.com>	2026-07-06 12:25:02 -07:00
github-actions[bot]	0b2706a488	chore: update AAGUIDs (#1567 ) Co-authored-by: stonith404 <58886915+stonith404@users.noreply.github.com>	2026-07-06 08:58:44 +02:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	eefd51cc4d	fix: various bugs in observability / OTel (#1564 )	2026-07-05 14:14:39 -07:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	f68ad42618	chore: use go-kit for sending emails (#1565 )	2026-07-05 13:10:11 -07:00
dependabot[bot]	0d2624db9c	chore(deps): Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 3 updates across multiple ecosystems (#1563 ) Signed-off-by: dependabot[bot] <support@github.com> Co-authored-by: dependabot[bot] <49699333+dependabot[bot]@users.noreply.github.com> Co-authored-by: Kyle Mendell <ksm@ofkm.us>	2026-07-05 22:06:07 +02:00
Elias Schneider	5c988a921a	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1559 ) Co-authored-by: Alessandro (Ale) Segala <43508+ItalyPaleAle@users.noreply.github.com>	2026-07-03 08:37:08 +02:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	9607495ab4	refactor: integrate Francis actor framework for background jobs, cron scheduling, and rate limiting (#1556 ) Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com> Co-authored-by: Claude <noreply@anthropic.com>	2026-07-03 08:36:45 +02:00
Alessandro (Ale) Segala	d359438814	tests(e2e): make API key renewal date picker navigation date-independent (#1560 )	2026-07-02 21:16:47 -05:00
Elias Schneider	931a6c2adb	feat: drop TOFU support for callback URL	2026-07-02 14:05:37 +02:00
James18232	8564d35682	feat: login code input boxes (#1545 ) Co-authored-by: james <james@goldfish.net> Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com>	2026-07-02 07:56:18 +00:00
Elias Schneider	ecad31cae2	refactor: migrate signup functionality to single `usersignup` module	2026-06-30 20:53:31 +02:00
Elias Schneider	58fcf7cbe6	refactor: migrate Webauthn functionality to single `webauthn` module	2026-06-29 14:05:07 +02:00
Elias Schneider	96ea55b9bc	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1550 )	2026-06-29 12:12:51 +02:00
Elias Schneider	9fce987106	refactor: migrate API key functionality to single `apikey` module	2026-06-29 12:11:18 +02:00
James18232	97bd466f38	feat: prompt admin with PKCE client support hint (#1499 ) Co-authored-by: james <james@goldfish.net> Co-authored-by: Alessandro (Ale) Segala <43508+ItalyPaleAle@users.noreply.github.com> Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com> Co-authored-by: Kyle Mendell <kmendell@ofkm.us>	2026-06-28 11:10:30 -07:00
Elias Schneider	1b3ba3f6c2	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1548 )	2026-06-28 12:01:44 -05:00
Elias Schneider	254ae88cda	ci/cd: add exempt user to PR quality checks	2026-06-27 14:41:14 +02:00
Elias Schneider	cb665681c4	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1543 )	2026-06-27 13:01:19 +02:00
Elias Schneider	d467855870	feat: add ability to skip consent for client	2026-06-26 23:35:26 +02:00
Elias Schneider	16b5c16a66	fix: CSP error with `response_mode=form_post`	2026-06-26 14:51:56 +02:00
Elias Schneider	2ed703540d	fix: don't reject `offline_access`scope	2026-06-26 14:43:22 +02:00
Elias Schneider	cf54786cc3	ci/cd: don't tag `next` image with current version	2026-06-26 13:50:52 +02:00
Elias Schneider	cdc23744ae	chore: change Depot project	2026-06-25 22:41:40 +02:00
Elias Schneider	4b957a0106	ci/cd: don't build unnecessary binaries for `next` image	2026-06-25 22:23:41 +02:00
Elias Schneider	49305ed1f9	ci/cd: remove static next image tag	2026-06-24 22:29:27 +02:00
Elias Schneider	99ab38dc79	chore: add support for Docker Hub	2026-06-24 22:00:49 +02:00
Kyle Mendell	35dcf58ee9	chore: use goreleaser for binaries and static image builds (#1478 ) Co-authored-by: Elias Schneider <login@eliasschneider.com>	2026-06-24 21:49:27 +02:00
Elias Schneider	d0243fe396	chore: add AGENTS.md	2026-06-23 09:09:34 +02:00
Elias Schneider	59fd6b3726	chore(translations): update translations via Crowdin (#1524 )	2026-06-23 08:38:59 +02:00
Elias Schneider	7eaaea717b	tests(e2e): fix flaky test	2026-06-22 23:00:10 +02:00
Elias Schneider	e538ea0bf1	chore(deps): update vulnerable dependencies	2026-06-22 22:37:51 +02:00
Elias Schneider	8689ddd72b	feat: improve error handling on authorize page	2026-06-22 22:12:14 +02:00
Elias Schneider	519cda0eef	refactor: remove dead code	2026-06-22 21:58:55 +02:00
Elias Schneider	cf9a31986f	chore: wrap last two migrations into transaction	2026-06-22 18:44:48 +02:00
Elias Schneider	8158452b37	refactor: use fosite for OAuth 2.0 logic (#1520 )	2026-06-22 18:42:02 +02:00
Elias Schneider	dbbe2a403a	tests(e2e): fix locators after shadcn upgrade	2026-06-21 20:52:42 +02:00
Elias Schneider	80509c83ee	feat: upgrade shadcn components	2026-06-20 23:57:34 +02:00
James18232	2e77d57282	fix: login code null submission and login code length check (#1512 ) Co-authored-by: james <james@goldfish.net> Co-authored-by: Kyle Mendell <kmendell@ofkm.us>	2026-06-20 20:42:50 +02:00
dependabot[bot]	f673a91a67	chore(deps): Bump the "all-dependencies" group with 2 updates across multiple ecosystems (#1528 ) Signed-off-by: dependabot[bot] <support@github.com>	2026-06-20 09:58:24 -05:00
Elias Schneider	35987b9c8d	ci/cd: close low-demand feature requests	2026-06-16 14:16:24 +02:00
@@ -1 +1 @@
 .9.0
 .11.0